Poverty in Ecuador and international cooperation interventions for its reduction
Palabras clave:
Multidimensional poverty, international cooperation, trade agreements, inequality, governance
Resumen
This article examines the potential of international cooperation incorporated into trade agreements to reduce poverty in Ecuador from a conceptual and empirical perspective. Based on a systematic and narrative literature review and a descriptive analysis of official poverty indicators for 2010–2023, the cooperation architecture and its level of implementation are evaluated. The results show: i) persistent urban-rural gaps (income poverty of 18.4% in urban areas versus 46.4% in rural areas in 2023); ii) high sensitivity of poverty to external shocks (pandemic, price volatility, energy crises); and iii) limited implementation and monitoring of cooperation programs. Drawing on the theoretical frameworks of Sen (2001), Banerjee & Duflo (2004), Sachs (2005), and the institutional literature, it is argued that cooperation is not a sufficient condition without complementary policies, inclusive institutions, and binding targets with monitoring. A territorially based cooperation architecture is proposed, with verifiable indicators and institutional strengthening, prioritizing education, primary healthcare, digital connectivity, and financial inclusion in rural areas. The contribution is a policy-ready roadmap to align cooperation commitments with measurable development outcomes over time, offering actionable guidance for governments and development partners.
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Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., & Robinson, J. A. (2001). Los orígenes coloniales del desarrollo comparado: una investigación empírica. Revista Económica Estadounidense, 91(5), 1369-1401. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.5.136
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Alkire, S., Kovesdi, F., Mitchell, C., Pinilla-Roncancio, M., & Scharlin-Pettee, S. (2020). OPHI MPI METHODOLOGICAL NOTE 50: Changes over Time in the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), University of Oxford. https://ophi.org.uk/sites/default/files/OPHI_MN_50_2020.pdf
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Alkire, S., & Foster, J. (2011). Counting and multidimensional poverty measurement. Journal of Public Economics, 95(7-8), 476-487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.11.006
Andrade, M., Andrade, R., Andrade, F., & Franco, M. (2023). La pobreza y desigualdad en Ecuador. Journal of Chemical Health Risks, 13 (5), 133-137. https://www.jchr.org/index.php/JCHR/article/view/1161
Ayllón, B. (2012). Transformações globais, potências emergentes e Cooperação Sul-Sul: desafios para a cooperação europeia. Cadernos CRH, 25 (65), 233-249. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-49792012000200004
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Bastiaens, I., & Postnikov, E. (2020). Social standards in trade agreements and free trade preferences: An empirical investigation. The Review of International Organizations, 15, 793-816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-019-09356-y
Briggs, R. C. (2021). Why does aid not target the poorest? International Studies Quarterly, 65(3), 739-752. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqab035
Burnside, C., & Dollar, D. (2000). Aid, policies, and growth. American Economic Review, 90(4), 847-868. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.4.847
Castro, D. C., & Zamora, E. A. (2013). Trends in official development assistance in the Andean countries (2000–2010). Resistencia: Journal of the Students of the Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar, Ecuador Campus, (3), 4–9. https://repositorio.uasb.edu.ec/server/api/core/bitstreams/ceb19490-b4f2-487a-bf94-42a485b958d3/content
Cesar, S. E. M., Visentin, J. C., Pavani, B. F., Branco, P. D., De Maria, M., & Loyola, R. (2024). The European Union-Mercosur free trade agreement as a tool for environmentally sustainable land use governance. Environmental Science and Policy, 161, 103875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2024.103875
Dollar, D., & Kraay, A. (2002). Growth is good for the poor. Journal of Economic Growth, 7(3), 195-225. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020139631000
Duflo, E. (2001). Schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in Indonesia: Evidence from an unusual policy experiment. American Economic Review, 91(4), 795-813. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.4.795
Duflo, E. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051-1079. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051
Durán, J., LaFleur, M., & Pellandra, A. (Eds.) (2011). Trade, poverty and complementary policies in Latin America. ECLAC. https://repositorio.cepal.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/847123aa-066f-4c82-92a1-d0db8b0a7dbe/content
Flick, U. (2018). Doing grounded theory. SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529716658
Foster, J., Greer, J., & Thorbeck, E. (1984). A class of decomposable poverty measures. Econometrica, 52(3), 761-766. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913475
Goldberg, P. K., & Pavcnik, N. (2007). Distributional effects of globalization in developing countries. Journal of Economic Literature, 45(1), 39-82. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.45.1.39
González, P., Sehnbruch, K., Apablaza, M., Méndez, R., & Arriagada, V. (2021). A multidimensional approach to measuring Quality of Employment (QoE) deprivation in six central American countries. Social Indicators Research, 158, 107-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02648-0
Grupo Banco Mundial (2025). Impulsando la prosperidad: Evaluación de la pobreza y la desigualdad en Ecuador. Grupo Banco Mundial. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099081325101538045
Hernández, R., Fernández, C., & Baptista, M. D. P. (2014). Metodología de la investigación. McGraw-Hill/ Interamericana Editores S.A. de C.V.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos - INEC (2023). Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU): Indicadores de Pobreza y Desigualdad. Diciembre 2023. INEC. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/POBREZA/2023/Diciembre/202312_PobrezayDesigualdad.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos - INEC (2024). Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU), Anual 2024. INEC. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/EMPLEO/2024/anual/Boletin_tecnico_anual_enero-diciembre_2024.pdf
Miguel, E., & Kremer, M. (2004). Worms: Identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities. Econometrica, 72(1), 159-217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00481.x
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana de Ecuador - MREMH (2026). Mapa de Cooperación Internacional del Ecuador. MREMH. https://app.cancilleria.gob.ec/mapa/#
Moreira, M. F. (2025). Análisis visual de la pobreza multidimensional en Ecuador y estrategias de intervención desde el trabajo social. VISUAL Review, 17(1), 225-234. https://doi.org/10.62161/revvisual.v17.5678
Muñetón, G., Pineda, L., y Keep, J. P. (2019). Medición de la pobreza multidimensional para la ciudad de Medellín, Colombia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXV(3), 114-129. https://www.produccioncientificaluz.org/index.php/rcs/article/view/27361
Quiroz, T., Quiroz, P. R., Vizcarra, A. M., & Mori, G. (2022). Integración y desarrollo del comercio intracomunitario de la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXVIII(3), 283-293. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v28i3.38474
Ramírez, J., Ballestas, M., Herrera, H., & Ballesta, I. (2023). Pobreza multidimensional y pobreza monetaria de los migrantes venezolanos: Un estudio en Barranquilla, Colombia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXIX(2), 373-386. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v29i2.39982
Ravallion, M. (2001). Growth, inequality and poverty: Looking beyond averages. World Development, 29(11), 1803-1815. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00072-9
Reyes-Ortiz, G., & Martin-Fiorino, V. (2025). Fundamentos del desarrollo económico-social sostenible, crecimiento y política económica. Perspectiva desde países emergentes. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXXI(E-12), 34-50. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v31i.44550
Rodrik, D., Subramanian, A., & Trebbi, F. (2004). Institutions rule: The primacy of institutions over geography and integration in economic development. Journal of Economic Growth, 9(2), 131-165. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOEG.0000031425.72248.85
Sachs, J. (2006). The end of poverty: Economic possibilities for our time. Penguin Press.
Sánchez, A., Ruiz, J., & Barrera, M. Á. (2020). La transformación del concepto de pobreza: un desafío para las ciencias sociales. Intersticios Sociales, (19), 39-65. https://www.intersticiossociales.com/index.php/is/article/view/255
Sen, A. (1976). Poverty: An ordinal approach to measurement. Econometrica, 44(2), 219-231. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912718
Sen, A. (2001). Development as freedom. OUP Oxford.
Sorzano, D. M., Rocha, D., y Torres, A. (2021). Combate a la pobreza y percepciones de beneficiarios en la frontera sur de México. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXVII(1), 66-83. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v27i1.35296
Stiglitz, J. E. (2003). Globalization and its discontents. W. W. Norton & Company.
United Nations - UN (2025). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2025/
Verduga, D., & Bravo, M. (2025). The impact of unemployment on poverty in Ecuador. LATAM Latin American Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 6 (3), 3380–3396. https://doi.org/10.56712/latam.v6i3.4201
Vos, R., & De Jong, N. (2003). Trade liberalization and poverty in Ecuador. Economic Systems Research, 15(2), 211-232. https://doi.org/10.1080/0953531032000091180
Winters, L. A., McCulloch, N., & McKay, A. (2004). Trade liberalization and poverty: The evidence so far. Journal of Economic Literature, 42(1), 72-115. https://doi.org/10.1257/002205104773558056
World Bank (2023). Poverty and inequality indicators. World Bank. https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/themes/poverty-and-inequality.html
Zabala, F. (2022). Impact of international organizations on the institutional development of investment activity. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 28(3), 100191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2021.100191
Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., & Robinson, J. A. (2001). Los orígenes coloniales del desarrollo comparado: una investigación empírica. Revista Económica Estadounidense, 91(5), 1369-1401. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.5.136
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2013). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. Crown Currency.
Alkire, S., Kovesdi, F., Mitchell, C., Pinilla-Roncancio, M., & Scharlin-Pettee, S. (2020). OPHI MPI METHODOLOGICAL NOTE 50: Changes over Time in the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), University of Oxford. https://ophi.org.uk/sites/default/files/OPHI_MN_50_2020.pdf
Alkire, S., & Foster, J. (2007). Recuento y medición multidimensional de la pobreza. Documento de trabajo OPHI No. 7. Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI). https://ophi.org.uk/sites/default/files/2024-03/ophi-wp7-es.pdf
Alkire, S., & Foster, J. (2011). Counting and multidimensional poverty measurement. Journal of Public Economics, 95(7-8), 476-487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.11.006
Andrade, M., Andrade, R., Andrade, F., & Franco, M. (2023). La pobreza y desigualdad en Ecuador. Journal of Chemical Health Risks, 13 (5), 133-137. https://www.jchr.org/index.php/JCHR/article/view/1161
Ayllón, B. (2012). Transformações globais, potências emergentes e Cooperação Sul-Sul: desafios para a cooperação europeia. Cadernos CRH, 25 (65), 233-249. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-49792012000200004
Banco Central del Ecuador – BCE (2023). Memoria Anual 2023. BCE. https://contenido.bce.fin.ec/documentos/PublicacionesNotas/Catalogo/Memoria/2023/MemoriaBCE2023.pdf
Banerjee, A., Deaton, A., & Duflo, E. (2004). Wealth, health, and health services in rural Rajasthan. American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 94(2), 326-330. https://www.princeton.edu/~deaton/downloads/banerjee_deaton_duflo_wealth_health_services_rajasthan_aer_pp_2004.pdf
Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R., & Kinnan, C. (2015). The miracle of microfinance? Evidence from a randomized evaluation. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(1), 22-53. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20130533
Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2004). Growth theory through the lens of development economics. SSRN. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.651483
Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2012). Poor economics: A radical rethinking of the way to fight global poverty. PublicAffairs.
Bastiaens, I., & Postnikov, E. (2020). Social standards in trade agreements and free trade preferences: An empirical investigation. The Review of International Organizations, 15, 793-816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-019-09356-y
Briggs, R. C. (2021). Why does aid not target the poorest? International Studies Quarterly, 65(3), 739-752. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqab035
Burnside, C., & Dollar, D. (2000). Aid, policies, and growth. American Economic Review, 90(4), 847-868. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.4.847
Castro, D. C., & Zamora, E. A. (2013). Trends in official development assistance in the Andean countries (2000–2010). Resistencia: Journal of the Students of the Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar, Ecuador Campus, (3), 4–9. https://repositorio.uasb.edu.ec/server/api/core/bitstreams/ceb19490-b4f2-487a-bf94-42a485b958d3/content
Cesar, S. E. M., Visentin, J. C., Pavani, B. F., Branco, P. D., De Maria, M., & Loyola, R. (2024). The European Union-Mercosur free trade agreement as a tool for environmentally sustainable land use governance. Environmental Science and Policy, 161, 103875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2024.103875
Dollar, D., & Kraay, A. (2002). Growth is good for the poor. Journal of Economic Growth, 7(3), 195-225. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020139631000
Duflo, E. (2001). Schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in Indonesia: Evidence from an unusual policy experiment. American Economic Review, 91(4), 795-813. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.4.795
Duflo, E. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051-1079. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051
Durán, J., LaFleur, M., & Pellandra, A. (Eds.) (2011). Trade, poverty and complementary policies in Latin America. ECLAC. https://repositorio.cepal.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/847123aa-066f-4c82-92a1-d0db8b0a7dbe/content
Flick, U. (2018). Doing grounded theory. SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529716658
Foster, J., Greer, J., & Thorbeck, E. (1984). A class of decomposable poverty measures. Econometrica, 52(3), 761-766. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913475
Goldberg, P. K., & Pavcnik, N. (2007). Distributional effects of globalization in developing countries. Journal of Economic Literature, 45(1), 39-82. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.45.1.39
González, P., Sehnbruch, K., Apablaza, M., Méndez, R., & Arriagada, V. (2021). A multidimensional approach to measuring Quality of Employment (QoE) deprivation in six central American countries. Social Indicators Research, 158, 107-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02648-0
Grupo Banco Mundial (2025). Impulsando la prosperidad: Evaluación de la pobreza y la desigualdad en Ecuador. Grupo Banco Mundial. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099081325101538045
Hernández, R., Fernández, C., & Baptista, M. D. P. (2014). Metodología de la investigación. McGraw-Hill/ Interamericana Editores S.A. de C.V.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos - INEC (2023). Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU): Indicadores de Pobreza y Desigualdad. Diciembre 2023. INEC. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/POBREZA/2023/Diciembre/202312_PobrezayDesigualdad.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos - INEC (2024). Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU), Anual 2024. INEC. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/EMPLEO/2024/anual/Boletin_tecnico_anual_enero-diciembre_2024.pdf
Miguel, E., & Kremer, M. (2004). Worms: Identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities. Econometrica, 72(1), 159-217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00481.x
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana de Ecuador - MREMH (2026). Mapa de Cooperación Internacional del Ecuador. MREMH. https://app.cancilleria.gob.ec/mapa/#
Moreira, M. F. (2025). Análisis visual de la pobreza multidimensional en Ecuador y estrategias de intervención desde el trabajo social. VISUAL Review, 17(1), 225-234. https://doi.org/10.62161/revvisual.v17.5678
Muñetón, G., Pineda, L., y Keep, J. P. (2019). Medición de la pobreza multidimensional para la ciudad de Medellín, Colombia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXV(3), 114-129. https://www.produccioncientificaluz.org/index.php/rcs/article/view/27361
Quiroz, T., Quiroz, P. R., Vizcarra, A. M., & Mori, G. (2022). Integración y desarrollo del comercio intracomunitario de la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXVIII(3), 283-293. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v28i3.38474
Ramírez, J., Ballestas, M., Herrera, H., & Ballesta, I. (2023). Pobreza multidimensional y pobreza monetaria de los migrantes venezolanos: Un estudio en Barranquilla, Colombia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXIX(2), 373-386. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v29i2.39982
Ravallion, M. (2001). Growth, inequality and poverty: Looking beyond averages. World Development, 29(11), 1803-1815. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00072-9
Reyes-Ortiz, G., & Martin-Fiorino, V. (2025). Fundamentos del desarrollo económico-social sostenible, crecimiento y política económica. Perspectiva desde países emergentes. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXXI(E-12), 34-50. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v31i.44550
Rodrik, D., Subramanian, A., & Trebbi, F. (2004). Institutions rule: The primacy of institutions over geography and integration in economic development. Journal of Economic Growth, 9(2), 131-165. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOEG.0000031425.72248.85
Sachs, J. (2006). The end of poverty: Economic possibilities for our time. Penguin Press.
Sánchez, A., Ruiz, J., & Barrera, M. Á. (2020). La transformación del concepto de pobreza: un desafío para las ciencias sociales. Intersticios Sociales, (19), 39-65. https://www.intersticiossociales.com/index.php/is/article/view/255
Sen, A. (1976). Poverty: An ordinal approach to measurement. Econometrica, 44(2), 219-231. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912718
Sen, A. (2001). Development as freedom. OUP Oxford.
Sorzano, D. M., Rocha, D., y Torres, A. (2021). Combate a la pobreza y percepciones de beneficiarios en la frontera sur de México. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve), XXVII(1), 66-83. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v27i1.35296
Stiglitz, J. E. (2003). Globalization and its discontents. W. W. Norton & Company.
United Nations - UN (2025). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2025/
Verduga, D., & Bravo, M. (2025). The impact of unemployment on poverty in Ecuador. LATAM Latin American Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 6 (3), 3380–3396. https://doi.org/10.56712/latam.v6i3.4201
Vos, R., & De Jong, N. (2003). Trade liberalization and poverty in Ecuador. Economic Systems Research, 15(2), 211-232. https://doi.org/10.1080/0953531032000091180
Winters, L. A., McCulloch, N., & McKay, A. (2004). Trade liberalization and poverty: The evidence so far. Journal of Economic Literature, 42(1), 72-115. https://doi.org/10.1257/002205104773558056
World Bank (2023). Poverty and inequality indicators. World Bank. https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/themes/poverty-and-inequality.html
Zabala, F. (2022). Impact of international organizations on the institutional development of investment activity. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 28(3), 100191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2021.100191
Publicado
2026-08-21
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Gallardo Cornejo, A. M. (2026). Poverty in Ecuador and international cooperation interventions for its reduction. Revista De Ciencias Sociales, 32(3), 49-66. https://doi.org/10.31876/rcs.v32i3.46069
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