Revista de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales
© 2022. Universidad del Zulia
ISSN 1012-1587/ ISSNe: 2477-9385
Depósito legal pp. 198402ZU45
Portada: Crónicas A y B
Artista: Rodrigo Pirela
Medidas: 40 x 60 cm
Técnica: Tinta y acrílico sobre Papel Fabriano
Año: 2012
Año 38, Regular No.99 (2022): 142-169
ISSN 1012-1587/ISSNe: 2477-9385
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7502690
Recibido: 18-09-2022 •Aceptado: 14-10-2022
Careers studies and gender: approaches and
perspectives
Fernanda de Aguiar Zanola
Universidade Federal de Lavras. Brasil
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3933-4185
fernanda.zanola@estudante.ufla.br
Fernanda Cavalheiro Ruffino Rauber
Universidade Federal de Lavras. Brasil
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2340-1048
fernanda.rauber2@estudante.ufla.br
Flaviana Andrade de Pádua Carvalho
Universidade Federal de Lavras. Brasil
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7723-3994
fapcar@ufla.br
Mônica Carvalho Alves Cappelle
Universidade Federal de Lavras. Brasil
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0095-3405
edmo@ufla.br
Abstract
We investigate career studies based on management, psychology,
and sociology approaches that use the concept of gender as their
foundation. We use the integrative literature review based on Torraco
(2016) perspective to expose these fields. Furthermore, we aspire to
understand the conceptual relationships expressed in the texts and
propose ways to comprehend this topic. To this end, we reinforce the
idea of interdisciplinarity and the indispensability of a critical lens which
allows readers of the review and future researchers to identify strengths,
weaknesses, benefits and new positions related to the subject of interest.
Keywords: careers; gender; literature review; integrative;
feminism.
Estudios de carrera y género: enfoques y perspectivas
Resumen
Investigamos estudios de carrera basados en enfoques de gestión,
psicología y sociología que utilizan el concepto de género como base para
sus observaciones. Utilizamos la revisión integradora de literatura de
Torraco (2016) para exponer estos campos. De esta manera, buscamos
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comprender las relaciones conceptuales expresadas en los textos y
proponer formas de comprensión de este tema. Para ello, reforzamos la
idea de interdisciplinariedad y la indispensabilidad de un lente crítico que
permita a los lectores de reseñas y futuros investigadores identificar
fortalezas, debilidades, beneficios y nuevas posiciones relacionadas con el
tema de interés.
Palabras clave: carreras; género; revisión de literatura;
integradora; feminismo.
1. Introduction
The concept of careers has different meanings and can be used in
different scenarios, including sociology, psychology, anthropology and
organizational studies. However, the original image came from the
construction of personal and professional experiences and was based on
the ideals of the nineteenth century's industrial, capitalist, liberal society
(CHANLAT, 1995; CARVALHO et al., 2015). Moreover, it is
interpreted as interdisciplinary due to the multiplicity of concepts that
encompass and enable the type of fruitful interconnection that can
formulate a coherent and rich dialogue (MOORE; GUNZ; HALL, 2007).
Axiologically and paradigmatically, this study addresses the view
that careers are always built, disseminated, reinforced and elaborated in
context. Thus, they are located at the crossroads between societal
histories and the lives of individuals. The roles that act as constituent
components of careers also indicate this dual link (CARVALHO et al.,
2015; INKSON; DRIES; ARNOLD, 2014; MAYRHOFER; MEYER;
STEYRER, 2007). Thus, careers should be analyzed and researched from
a broad, human perspective (GRANDJEAN, 1981). It is noteworthy
that, according to the view we use in this study, careers are interpreted as
discursively produced rather than having a concrete existence of their
own (PRASAD; D’ABATE; PRASAD, 2007).
Another fundamental concept worth noting is that, in this study,
we understand sex and gender as distinct concepts. “Sex” indicates
biological characteristics that classify living beings (ACKER, 2006;
BUTLER, 2002). Therefore, this definition echoes an essentially organic
view, and its application reiterates reductionist aspects of society
(ACKER, 2006; BUTLER, 2002). The conceptual distancing of the terms
“sex” and “gender” occurred in the 1980s through the work of
poststructural theorists. From these studies, gender began to be
understood as socially constructed (AHL; MARLOW, 2012).
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In turn, the conceptual communion between careers and gender
often explores how knowledge, options and career (re)constructions are
explicitly and implicitly shaped and how they develop over time. In
addition, how these processes are perceived in the scenario in which they
operate is exposed, which allows an understanding of the diversity of
human relationships by capturing the heterogeneity of connections.
Already stated tells us that there are, at different levels, regimes of
inequality exist in all organizations. Several practices maintain class,
gender, sexuality and race, among other factors, as interconnected roots
of distinction. The impacts of these actions vary concerning the degree to
which they are present and how they are institutionalized and maintained
as natural (AHL; MARLOW, 2012; HOLVINO, 2010; KNIGHTS,
2019).
The interconnection among these basic assumptions is
(re)formulated from the specific history, politics and culture of each
society and impacts the careers of individuals in different spheres.
Therefore, the understanding that organizations and institutions are
neutral is broken. Similar, this reformulation challenges the
understanding of gender equality, which is also incorporated into the
discourses. Furthermore, the context, experiences, changes and choices
associated with different stages of life alter organizational, social,
psychological and economic dynamics as well as careers (HUPPATZ,
2015; JONES; DUNN, 2007; MOORE; GUNZ; HALL, 2007).
From this perspective, and with an integrative review, this study
investigates career studies based on management, psychology, and
sociology approaches that use the concept of gender as their theoretical
foundation. In doing so, we expose the main path that discerns the field.
In addition, we aim to understand the conceptual relationships expressed
in the texts and propose to study this topic. To this end, we reinforce the
idea of interdisciplinarity and the indispensability of a critical lens, which
enables both the author of the review and future readers of the study to
identify strengths, weaknesses, benefits and new positions for future
research related to the topic of interest.
2. Basic understanding of careers and gender
The term career is derived from Carraria in Latin, described as a
road or lane, and reflects the idea of a continuous path. With this
definition, an individual's career path is considered a linear trajectory of
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related jobs, with upward vertical mobility and a sense of the inevitability
of occupational events. Career paths have been described as “stairs” or
“rails”. This view has theoretical and methodological implications that
reflect conceptions of a structural, even functionalist, approach
(CUZZOCREA; LYON, 2011).
However, a different elaboration was presented by the members
of the Chicago School. They treated the subject of careers as a heuristic
applicable to a much wider range of situations than is typical of current
usage (BARLEY, 1989). With this new epistemological position, the view
of careers has changed; a new way of assimilating the nuances of this
social and organizational phenomenon has emerged that indicates that a
career can be understood as an explicit recognition located at the
intersection between societal histories and an individual’s life (BARLEY,
1989; CARVALHO et al., 2015).
From this point of view, in this study, we disregard the notion of a
career as synonymous with a job; otherwise, we postulate both as
divergent. The subjects' actions will not be singled out in unique, chained
perspectives free from contextual impact. In other words, careers are not
limited to professional activities. Other means of realization permeate
social, cultural, contextual, temporal, and spatial aspects (HUGHES,
1937). Therefore, they take many forms and are not only linked to formal
jobs (BAILYN, 2004), relating to the trajectories that subjects experience
in the micro and macro environment in contemporary relationships
(MAYRHOFER; MEYER; STEYRER, 2007).
Thus, the assertion that "careers are always careers in context" is
adopted as a fundamental precept (MAYRHOFER; MEYER;
STEYRER, 2007, p. 215); in other words, careers are not limited to only
one person moving within "professional" structures. Rather, they are
related to the individual's belonging in the context in which they act and
therefore involve relationships between the micro and macro
environments of contemporary social relations. Another aspect of
interest in the debate is linked to the opening of interdisciplinary studies.
From this perspective, understanding careers can come from different
theoretical lenses. From this point of view, the interconnections can be
analyzed and researched from a broad perspective, linking societies'
histories and subjects' biographies (GRANDJEAN, 1981). Inkson et al.
(2014) highlight three approaches that can assist in research on the
subject: the sociological, psychological, and administrative approaches. In
addition to outlining a field of interest for investigations in organizational
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studies, this study will be used as a guide for the observations traced by
the literature review.
From a sociological approach, careers are understood according to
social aspects. Therefore, culture is considered; the norms, rules, and
institutions that subjects interact with can influence their career paths
(ARTHUR; HALL; LAWRENCE, 1989; KHAPOVA; ARTHUR, 2011;
MOORE; GUNZ; HALL, 2007). Under the psychological approach,
they clarify the dynamics behind the life course. Therefore, they observe
vocational guidance, subjects' adjustment, the differences in choices,
perceptions of success, and the interpretation of life cycles concerning
careers(MOORE; GUNZ; HALL, 2007). Finally, from the administrative
approach, they highlight organizations' roles in guiding subjects'
behaviour; they help interpret professional events; and support
organizational decision-making (BENDASSOLLI, 2009; CARVALHO et
al., 2015). Furthermore, they perceive careers as an artifice that favours
the allocation of resources, support for decision-making, and symbolic
management (BENDASSOLLI, 2009).
However, perspectives related to career studies do not end with
these three theoretical views. For example, studies of gender and career
often explore the topic by addressing how knowledge and choices –
made explicitly or implicitly – develop over time. Furthermore, attention
is given to temporal and spatial dimensions, reiterating the importance of
the context, experiences, changes, and choices associated with different
stages of life. Finally, these agendas address knowledge and symbols
capable of challenging the understanding of gender as neutral in the
organizational environment by critically incorporating challenges into
interpretations of career experiences (LEWIS; SIMPSON, 2015).
To define the concept of gender, I use the perception of Scott
(1995), a historian responsible for disseminating the notion that this is a
constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived
differences between the sexes and that it acts as a primary means of
giving meaning to relationships of power. This concept, derived from the
vision of North American researchers, reflects the social origins of the
subjective identities of men and women (SCOTT, 1995).
In this case, with the interactions between gender and careers, it is
possible to observe the sexual division of work. This action discriminates
against ideal forms of work according to the biological characteristics of
the subjects. According to the rules of domination that circumscribe this
redefinition, men must have the aptitude for the productive sphere;
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women, on the other hand, are naturally destined for the reproductive
sphere. In addition, men are biologically more likely to assume functions
of strong added social value (political, religious, military, and so forth).
Therefore, many times, through work and career paths, a naturalist
ideology is repeatedly asserted that limits notions of gender to sex,
reducing social practices to the natural destination of the species
(KERGOAT, 2009).
In summary, the theme that unites careers and gender is
interdisciplinary (FRAGA; GEMELLI; ROCHA-DE-OLIVEIRA, 2019).
We also highlight the statement by Mayrhofer et al. (2007), which
indicates that all scenarios are marked by gender relations, or are
gendered, as indicated by Rocha-de-Oliveira & Fraga (2020). Careers,
inscribed and structured in these domains, interconnected societies and
organizations to the historical differences of gender (ROCHA-DE-
OLIVEIRA; FRAGA, 2020).
From this panorama, we observe the possibility of capturing the
heterogeneities of connections, raising social knowledge about how
things work, or should work, thus exploring how subjects and the roles
they assume act and relate to each other in specific contexts. In addition,
from the union of the concepts, a social vision is explored that is
encapsulated in roles that interrelate (JONES; DUNN, 2007).
Therefore, in this study, we seek to understand studies on careers
that conceptually use the notions of gender to support their perspectives,
outline scenarios, change logic, contribute to the foundation of others
and even perpetuate paradigms in research involving the theme. Thus, we
intend to highlight implications and explore ways to use both concepts
synchronously. In addition, we will seek to establish a theoretical
framework with epistemological and ontological implications for the
approach to the theme.
3. Methodological foundations
As a way of examining scientific articles that deal with the
conceptual interconnection between career and gender, we carried out an
integrative literature review based on the precepts of Torraco (2016). The
author developed this technote to offer brief and effective guidelines for
developing research that generates new knowledge on the reviewed topic.
This approach reviews, criticizes, and synthesizes the literature in an
integrated way so that new frameworks and perspectives are generated.
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The steps outlined correspond to (1) selecting a topic (either
mature or on the rise) that needs to be reviewed, providing a general
understanding of what is known or not about the subject; (2)
organization and structure of the text which can be temporal,
methodological or conceptual; (3) careful examination of arguments
through a critical lens, identifying strengths as well as any shortcomings,
omissions, inaccuracies, and other problematic aspects of the literature;
and formulation of (4) synthesis and construction of analysis based on
ideas, concepts and interrelationships presented in the literature. Torraco
(2016) highlights that this methodological strategy makes it possible to
review, reconceptualize, update, synthesize, criticize and answer specific
research questions on the topic investigated from the existing literature,
increasing knowledge on the topic under discussion.
Taking into account the observations outlined, we selected career
studies that addressed gender in their foundation, outlined by perspectives of
interest to organizational studies, the approaches of administration,
psychology and sociology. To find this field of discussion mature in the
academic literature, we surveyed studies based on the keywords: career
studies AND gender. Initially, we consulted the Web of Science database. A
wider body of journals is compiled on this platform (CHEN et al., 2018).
Then, to cover new studies, we searched for the same keywords in Scopus, as
this base covers the most prestigious journals in many areas of knowledge
(CHEN et al., 2018).
Due to the breadth of topics usually interconnected to different areas
of knowledge, we noticed the need to filter studies only by scientific articles
that had the selected combination of terms in their topic of analysis; and
mentioned the areas of interest for this research (the approach to
management, psychology and sociology). This option made it possible to
reduce the vast number of articles found and, in the same way, to expose
those that would meet the objective proposed by the integrative review
undertaken. The steps for conducting the research are summarized in Figure
1.
Figure 1. Synthesis of the steps and filters applied in the research
From the Authors (2022)
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The first two steps have been done mechanically through the
devices available on digital platforms. We found 47 articles on the Web
of Science and 30 in Scopus from its implementation. After reaching this
number, all articles were downloaded, analyzed and categorized.
Unfortunately, a large part was duplicated or did not mention the areas of
interest for the research (administration, psychology and sociology).
Therefore, studies that did not have theoretical, methodological and
conceptual applications linked to these fields of interest were excluded
from the study corpus, for example, clinical studies in engineering,
physics, mathematics, and nutrition, among others.
After reading the articles, 23 of the total were selected. Thus, 24
articles were excluded, considering that they were duplicates or did not
relate to the topics of interest mentioned above. This refinement was
carried out to express systematically the organized and didactic way the
main concepts used by authors who approach careers and genres in their
studies. Table 1 summarizes the studies and characterizes the articles that
make up the integrative review implemented.
Table 1 - Synthesis of articles part of the review
Title
Author
Year
Predominant
approach
The importance of gender
in mid‐career: A
longitudinal study of
MBAs.
Joy A, Shcneer
& Frieda
Reitman
1994
Administrative
Procesos culturales e
individuales implicados en
la estereotipia de género.
Una aproximación
empírica a la elección de
carrera.
Mercedes
López-Sáez
1994
Psychological
The cultural constructs of
race, gender and class: a
study of how Afro‐
Caribbean women
academics negotiate their
careers.
Sheila T.
Gregory
2006
Sociological
Gender differences in
public relations students'
career attitudes: A
benchmark study.
Betty Farmer
& Lisa Waugh
1999
Administrative
The academic career: a
study of subjectivity,
Petra Angervall
2018
Sociological
Careers studies and gender: approaches and perspectives
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gender and movement
among women university
lecturers.
Gender equality during
the transition to
parenthood: A
longitudinal study of dual-
career couples in
Singapore.
Karen Mui-
Teng Quek et
al.
2011
Administrative
The impact of gender
culture on women's career
trajectories: an Australian
case study.
Andrea North-
Samardzic &
Lucy Taksa
2011
Administrative
The process of choosing a
management career:
Evaluation of gender and
contextual dynamics in a
comparative study of six
countries: Hungary, Israel,
North Cyprus, Turkey,
UK and the USA.
Cem Tanova;
Mine Karatas-
Özkan &
Gözde Inal.
2008
Administrative
Gender and careers: a
study of persistence in
engineering education in
Bangladesh.
Edwina Pio et
al.
2013
Psychological
Gender and careers in city
management: A case study
of the career paths of one
department's MPA
graduates.
Alexander N.
Aguado &
George H.
Frederickson
2012
Administrative
Gender role attitudes and
careers: A longitudinal
study
Elizabeth A,
Corrigall &
Alison.
Konrad.
2007
Psychological
Validity, gender research,
and studies of the effects
of career development
interventions.
Carol Kehr
Tittle.
1988
Psychological
Gênero e carreira
científica: um estudo a
partir dos dados das
universidades federais da
região norte do Brasil.
Ariane S.
Tavares &
Temis G.
Parente.
2015
Administrative
A qualitative study on
perceptions of surgical
careers in Rwanda: A
gender-based approach.
Sojung Yi et al.
2018
Psychological
Gendered Motivations to
Pursue Male-Dominated
STEM Careers Among
Milagros Sáinz
et al.
2020
Administrative
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Spanish Young People: A
Qualitative Study.
Gender stereotypes and
patronage practices in
women’s careers: A study
of the Mexican executive
branch.
Fernanda Vidal
Correa
2016
Psychological
Gender and hardiness as
predictors of career
adaptability: an
exploratory study among
Black call centre agents.
Melinde
Coetzee &
Nisha Harry.
2015
Psychological
Gender differences in
young adults’ inclination
to sacrifice career
opportunities in the future
for family reasons:
comparative study with
university students from
Nairobi, Madrid, and
Reykjavik.
José Andrés
Fernández-
Cornejo et al.
2016
Administrative
Les trajectoires
professionnelles des
couples mariés en
Allemagne: Une étude
longitudinale de long
terme de carrières des
époux en Allemagne de
l'Ouest.
Hans-Peter
Blossfeld;
Sonja Drobnič
& Götz
Rohwer.
1998
Sociological
Measurement invariance
in careers research: using
IRT to study gender
differences in medical
students' specialization
decisions
Tara Behrend,
et al.
2008
Psychological
Beyond ‘gender
differences’: a Canadian
study of women's and
men's careers in
engineering
Gillian Ranson.
2003
Administrative
Parent–child career
construction: A narrative
study from a gender
perspective.
Maria Chiara
Pizzorno, et al.
2014
Psychological
Gender differences in
children's and adolescents'
career aspirations: A
follow-up study
Sandberg, D.
E., et al.
1991
Psychological
From the Authors (2022)
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It is worth noting that the scientific articles investigated were not
restricted in terms of language and year of publication. However, the vast
majority were written in English, but we noticed the representativeness of
the Spanish language in the compiled studies. Furthermore, the first study
that composed the corpus is dated 1994. Finally, most understand the
concept of careers different from the unilateral notions of employment
and sequentially linked professions.
After this systematization, we followed the qualitative analysis
process proposed by Riessman (2008). This strategy is appropriate for
interpreting many types of texts – oral, written and visual – and asking
questions about “what” is said, written or shown visually. However, in
the thematic approach, the focus is on the specific content and what is
told – the events and cognitions to which the language refers (the content
of speech). Likewise, it reflects what is experienced. The sequential and
structural characteristics of the narratives focus on the investigated case
and not on the assimilation with other similar ones. This perspective
encourages the search for new theoretical insights based on the data
(ZACCARELLI; GODOY, 2013).
Thus, new frameworks and perspectives on the study's objective
are generated (TORRACO, 2016). Regarding the database analysis,
Torraco (2005) recommends deconstructing central themes into sub-
topics that may include interactions, applications, and research methods.
The future sections were organized to capture the dynamics of the
studies, allowing researchers to have a holistic and synthetic
conceptualization of the topic (TORRACO, 2016).
Findings of the study
In the following topics, we will delve deeper into analysing the
texts that make up the integrative review, seeking to identify theories,
positions, limitations and useful understandings for the field that unites
careers and gender.
Overview: paradigmatic approaches based on psychological, administrative and
sociological approaches to studying careers and gender
Inkson et al. (2014) note that careers are understood through
metaphors that creatively synthesize different phenomena. Through
singular expressions, understandings formulated by ordinary people,
organizations, the media, and other artifices that shape perceptions daily
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are exposed. The author's perception of three different understandings of
careers is used to explore existing concepts and interconnections in the
investigated corpus. Inkson et al. (2014) note these different influence
ontologies on what careers are and how should study them in certain
contexts. Based on this vision, the texts integrated into these studies were
categorized and brought paradigms that reinforce positions attached to
sociological, psychological and administrative approaches.
The sociological aspect highlighted some understandings arising
from the origin of the concept; it defines careers as the result of an
individual's history and emphasizes roles that are stimulated by society's
expectations (INKSON; DRIES; ARNOLD, 2014; KHAPOVA;
ARTHUR, 2011). Thus, concerning gender, careers are understood in
terms of the social and cultural structure, norms, rules and institutions
with which individuals interact and that impact their choices (INKSON;
DRIES; ARNOLD, 2014; MOORE; GUNZ; HALL, 2007).
Inkson et al. (2014) observed that studies based on sociology show
that everyone has a career. However, careers are not related to work roles
alone; they involve objective and subjective elements and are not limited
(ARTHUR; HALL; LAWRENCE, 1989; INKSON; DRIES; ARNOLD,
2014). This point of view is also observed in the text of Gregory (2006),
who seeks to understand whether the careers of individuals are socially
constructed in context based on a panoramic view of the everyday
experiences of black women. For this purpose, these and similar
questions resonate throughout Gregory’s theoretical elaboration: “What
academic, professional and personal choices did you make when
negotiating your careers?” and “What other personal experiences helped
shape your life?” (GREGORY, 2006).
The psychological aspect focuses on individuals and their career
decisions. The term vocation occupies a special place in these studies
(INKSON; DRIES; ARNOLD, 2014); accordingly, such studies address
differences in individual choices, how they can affect individuals’
perception of success and how life cycles change careers (MOORE;
GUNZ; HALL, 2007). We observed these positions in the studies
included in this review. For example, Behrend et al., (2008) researched
gender, vocations and careers. In Coetzee & Harry (2015), the
manifestation of two psychological constructs (resistance and career
adaptability) is explored among females working in call centres in the
African context. Observations in the readings corroborate Inkson et al.
(2014). They observed that the psychological aspect has a practical and
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objective focus on helping individuals make good decisions, particularly
in their choice of employment and occupation, to provide the maximum
benefit for themselves and society.
The administrative approach to careers, in turn, focuses on the
relationship between careers and the organizational scenario. The focus is
on practical matters such as personnel selection, development,
performance, evaluation policies, promotion and the formulation of
benefits for both parties. Such studies are closely related to human
resources studies focusing on generating personal and organizational
benefits (CARVALHO et al., 2015; INKSON; DRIES; ARNOLD,
2014). Farmer & Waugh (1999) emphasize the need for organizations to
help women manage the continuous progress of their personal and
professional development. Furthermore, North-Samardzic & Taksa
(2011) identify and show the changes in gender cultures underlying
organizations.
However, the texts presented in this review are not limited to
understanding careers and genders only in these three major categories.
Thus, several currents of thought are integrated as the foundation for
understanding the interactions of the concepts of gender and careers in
the texts included in this study. Interdisciplinarity is a central point that
favours interpersonal understandings that improve the observation of a
macro environment (CHUDZIKOWSKI; MAYRHOFER, 2011). We
emphasize that when designing a monodisciplinary study, there is the
possibility of experiencing some analytical limitations due to biased
apprehensions produced, at certain times, by a single theoretical lens.
This positioning can harm the broad observation of the scenario,
generating a reductionist and singular knowledge (CHUDZIKOWSKI;
MAYRHOFER, 2011).
Therefore, Chudzikowski & Mayrhofer (2011) reinforce the need
for a constant search for the interdisciplinarity of knowledge and, from
there, expand the horizons of research. Thus, this positioning provides a
conceptual framework and allows new questions and answers to be
formed through systematically integrating theories and methodologies.
For example, López-Sáez (1994) notes the conceptual convergence
between psychology and social theories and the understanding that
cultural norms can affect the socialization process and career choices.
These two factors predict how people perceive their social world and
interpret personal experiences.
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Conversely, the analyses in Quek et al. (2011), who studied dual
careers, were constructed beyond the simplistic understandings of the
division of labour to include each person’s ability to influence the
relationship and connect their personal goals and interests. Thus, views
on status in the relationship, mutual accommodation and attention to the
other, aligned with physical, emotional and economic well-being, are
included. This convergence is observed in Angervall (2018), who unites
careers, subjectivity and gender in observing a group of academic women
who express interest in doing research and who, for different reasons, are
involved in only teaching and administration.
In short, several epistemological, ontological and paradigmatic
positionings can compose studies on careers and gender. However,
uniting these positionings, which are highly recursive, with other
analytical perspectives increases the understanding of the investigated
scenario and allows new questions and answers to be posed through the
systematic integration of theories and methodologies from different
disciplinary inheritances (CHUDZIKOWSKI; MAYRHOFER, 2011).
Ways in which gender and careers have been interpreted
In a preliminary observation by North-Samardzic & Taksa (2011),
the central argument is based on Jones (1998) and Harding (1987)
elucidate the understanding that gender practices are an inextricable part
of organizations. The authors clarify the dynamics perpetuated in the
work environment and expose the means that encourage individuals to
become agents and (re)producers of relationships, discourses and
knowledge that feed the distinctions related to gender and generate
discriminatory processes in different contexts.
This understanding shows that organizations can dynamically
reflect on and influence their organizational culture to achieve linked
meanings and transform them into institutionalized practices. Unequal
gender relations exist in organizations. However, they are complex to
observe because, in many cases, they are masked by discourses in favour
of equality. Nonetheless, it is useful to address this position because it
increases the understanding of how career trajectories are constructed
and creates perceptions that avoid the reproduction of distinctions
(HARDING, 1987; JONES, 1998; NORTH‐SAMARDZIC; TAKSA,
2011).
Lopez-Saez (1994) attests that beliefs about gender are not
Careers studies and gender: approaches and perspectives
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restricted to descriptive interpretations of the organizational setting.
Instead, these processes are complex and act in relational dynamics,
affecting the identity of individuals. Pizzorno et al., (2014) contribute to
this perspective by arguing that identity is an important construct for
understanding this relationship. For this purpose, individual history is
used. This view is constructed from the narratives of the self with the
individual's different roles. This perception explains how individuals
guide and explain their choices, illustrating relational, cultural
circumstances, power inequalities and relationships that limit their
freedom of choice (PIZZORNO et al., 2014). The notion of identity is
also applied in the study by North-Samardzic and Taksa (2011) to
understand how women navigate their career trajectories. In that study,
the researchers observed tensions between identities that reflect
ambivalence about experiences related to the gender culture with which
the participants live (NORTH-SAMARDZIC; TAKSA, 2011).
In the same way, an understanding of stereotypes that differentiate
men and women into categories emerges, and these constructed
distinctions are transmitted and (re)produced into categories. Thus,
gender stereotypes affect the image that a person creates of him- or
herself starting at birth and produce identifications that (re)formulate the
individual's perceptions about the scenario in which they live (LÓPEZ-
SÁEZ, 1994). Correa (2016) corroborates this concept by observing that
in the organizational context, the stereotypical male is risky, aggressive,
forceful, dominant and able to withstand pressure, while the female
stereotype describes women as emotional, concerned, kind,
compassionate and warm. Through this lens, the author observed, in the
context of the executive branch, gender stereotypes and their importance
in the definition and elaboration of the main political practices, such as
recruitment, selection and appointment of individuals in the executive
branch, reinforcing discriminatory practices (CORREA, 2016).
Another recurring concept in integrated studies is the notion of
institutionalization since intuitions structure various social segments.
However, these "patterns" do not operate in disarray; on the contrary,
they are related to the various actions of different organizational forms
(CORREA, 2016). Correa (2016) states that many studies based on an
institutional approach exclude the notion of gender from their
considerations. In this way, they ignore ideas, interests and rules that
solidify barriers and limit the rise of some subjects in their careers. To
explore this thought, the author applies the foundations of feminist
institutionalism by Krook & Mackay (2011). Based on the authors,
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institutions are composed of gender regimes, and in many cases, these
practices reveal institutionalized oppressions (KROOK; MACKAY,
2010).
Through these works, the notion that institutions are neutral is
contradicted. Instead, scholars favour this perspective to understand that
conceptual interconnection is a source of internal and external changes.
In addition, they emphasize the importance of valuing the historical and
sociological perspective of rational and discursive choices. Therefore,
these works contribute to recognizing formal and informal practices that
transmit gender and produce structural barriers that differentiate the
genders within institutional structures (KROOK; MACKAY, 2010).
The notion of agency of individuals was also observed. This idea
addresses the view of engagement established by actors in different
environments who, through interaction, reproduce and transform
structures in interactive response to problems through changing historical
situations (EMIRBAYER; MISCHE, 1998). Tanova et al., (2008)
promote this understanding by exposing, with the human agency
approach, a rhetorical perception of career choices that are conceived
based on new means that move people to action. This relationship is best
understood through a history of careers that explains what guides an
individual's choices and uses that information to help the individual attain
a sense of agency. Therefore, interpreting human agency exposes
relational circumstances, cultural conditioning and power inequalities that
limit freedom of choice (PIZZORNO et al., 2014).
This multidimensionality also is explored from the conceptual
triad (capital, field and habitus) founded by Pierre Bourdieu (1986). This
view has interdisciplinary support and is adaptable to analyzing contexts
beyond the original research interests. For example, used Tanova et al.
(2008) reveal how the sequence of roles can reinforce or alter
relationships by demonstrating how organizations remodel them.
Moreover, it positions social relations within a system of exchange, which
expands the application of this view to all material and symbolic relations
without distinction (HUPPATZ, 2015; MOORE; GUNZ; HALL, 2007;
TANOVA; KARATAŞ‐ÖZKAN; İNAL, 2008).
On the other hand, Tavares & Parente (2015) approach a new
strategy that explores careers and gender: the metaphor of the "glass
ceiling". This positioning highlights a way of conceptualizing the human
experience. It evidences the existence of a barrier in the career of women
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and other members of socially marginalized groups that prevent them
from progressing. In addition, it reveals the consequences of
discriminatory actions in organizations. However, it does not address all
forms of marginalization and oppression found at the organizational level
(PRASAD; D’ABATE; PRASAD, 2007), reinforcing just a single prism
of what can be a continuum of interconnected oppressions.
Excessive use of the view that careers are socially constructed is
observed, although some of the uses of this view are subtle. They are
(re)produced to the investigated context (GREGORY, 2006; LÓPEZ-
SÁEZ, 1994; NORTH‐SAMARDZIC; TAKSA, 2011; TANOVA;
KARATAŞ‐ÖZKAN; İNAL, 2008). Through this theoretical lens, it is
understood that careers develop over time because of the interaction
among an individual's interests, understandings, reactions and initiatives.
Thus, careers are transformed through a continuous process of meaning
creation (TANOVA; KARATAŞ‐ÖZKAN; İNAL, 2008).
Furthermore, it demonstrates that there is no objective truth, as
the understandings of the various interactions are (re) formulated socially.
A current used by Quek et al., (2011) and Fernández-Cornejo et al.,
(2016) that can be applied to the previous precepts is the vision of
postmodern feminist constructivism. This conceptual subdivision
understands that perceptions of reality are created and maintained
through the selection and organization of information. Knowledge, truth,
power and social relationships are socially constructed rather than
discovered or revealed. To this end, gender relations are interpreted as
relational and situational, which is "done" rather than a personality
characteristic. Thus, it composes social discourses that shape common
value systems and cultural practices that reflect views in different
contexts (QUEK et al., 2011).
In summary, most of the selected texts are in agreement with
Grandjean (1981) for careers should be researched in a broad
perspective, placing a human bias, making it an intersection of societal
history and individual biography. Gregory (2006) in a way, reinforces this
statement by exposing that in the Caribbean, there is a point where the
history and culture of the country merge, enabling the understanding of
social relations, as well as the careers of women who work there.
Therefore, there is a common point that unites social structures, cultural
norms and institutional definitions to direct, define and restrict the
actions of subjects who navigate institutions, professions, careers and
occupations (MOORE; GUNZ; HALL, 2007). The following topic takes
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up some of these views by exploring the latent limitations of career
studies when approaching gender concepts.
Limitations in studies about careers with gender approaches
When observing the reviewed literature, we noticed that some of
the investigated texts used perspectives that do not promote or prevent
the application of this interdisciplinary dialogue between the studies of
careers and gender. Therefore, dialogic perspectives were avoided, which
allowed a joint understanding of social, economic, institutional and
organizational relationships, among others. Furthermore, they did not
base observations on interactions formulated in different contexts. We
identified one of the potential dilemmas that hamper the studies of
careers linked to the notions of gender in the investigated framework: the
formulation of extremely descriptive results that distinguish and reiterate
binary aspects understood as limiting.
In this sense, some texts constructed studies with one-sided views.
That is, only an understanding of the subjects was observed, formulating
reductionist results and disseminating universalizing characteristics to the
entire investigated sample. Furthermore, they did not consider that
knowledge about the relationships between careers and gender is
conceived through observing the incarnate subject situated in particular
places and times, oriented towards the environments with which they
relate. Leaving aside observations can reinforce the relationships between
the cultural, contextual, spatial and temporal environment (LONGINO,
2017).
In summary, these studies did not consider other dimensions that
reiterate discriminatory societal processes. Therefore, they used
homogeneous samples regarding race, class, sexuality, and ethnicity.
Therefore, the findings were redundant and not applicable to scenarios in
which there is a multitude of groups. Furthermore, the analyzed samples
generalize characteristics to external groups. In other words, they applied
genders (especially women) as equal or with universal characteristics.
And, they reduced the differences seen in the organizations only to
previously reiterated stereotypes, in which men are holders of strength
and women are providers of the home (thus reinforcing the biological
view of the sexes).
Likewise, they built studies based on functionalist perspectives
that only address rigid and binary characteristics of gender aspects of
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careers. Using this, studies on the frequency of behaviour and percentage
of men and women in certain segments do not expand the debate and
limit understanding of the context. In this sense, institutionalized
objectivism had repercussions, mostly reinforced by a masculine view of
science. Furthermore, they did not use subjectivities aligned with the
contextual and social analysis of the phenomenon, leaving aside the
background that modulates beliefs and reinforces individual and
collective inferences shared in the community (LONGINO, 2017).
These same studies do not differentiate sex and gender, using
them as synonymous concepts. Instead, we recapitulate that sex and
gender are understood as distinct concepts. “Sex” indicates biological
characteristics that classify living beings, an essentially organic
delimitation that alludes to reductionist aspects of society and the fixed
identity of social actors (ACKER, 1990, 2006; BUTLER, 2002). On the
other hand, “gender” is linked to the view of overlapping social, symbolic
and material conditions that produce experiences and build the
definitions of “masculine and feminine” (ACKER, 2006; ELY;
MEYERSON, 2000). Therefore, by associating both – sex and gender – a
uniformity is imposed on individuals, that is, a reductionist and simplistic
view of the social context.
Therefore, by aligning them, limiting discourses about the
“natural” and biological differences between beings are favoured. In
addition, they reinforce understandings that contribute to maintaining the
reproduction of differentiations (HARDING, 1987; JONES, 1998;
NORTH-SAMARDZIC & TAKSA, 2011). For example, the study by
Pio (2013) highlights the relevance of the concept of “gender” to
understand the existing career relationships in the patriarchal society that
is the target of his study: the city of Bangladesh. With this perspective,
which understands gender as a device that formulates, regulates and
shapes subjects' identities in contemporary scenarios, it analyzed Western
career models in a transversal way beyond their individualistic roots,
including social and contextual views. From the same fear, López-Saez
(1994) sees gender as a social construct, which interacts to influence
behaviours, and through relationships with other characteristics, such as
sex, culture and professional roles, maintain dominant value systems,
influencing judgments made about other people and yourself.
Although there are limiting understandings about gender and sex
in the studies that make up the integrative review, most comprise socially
formed gender. Therefore, it is not fixed but reformulated through
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complex social processes and practices linked to the context (BUTLER,
2002; RODRIGUES, 2005). Furthermore, they emphasize its links with
other constituents of social identities, such as race, class and ethnicity.
Therefore, they link the gender category to other perspectives that
naturalize identity characteristics. In addition, they position gender as an
artefact that influences organizational culture, creating specific symbols,
images, values and rules in which the linked meanings are dynamically
achieved, transforming them into institutionalized practices (SHIELDS,
2008).
Through the insight disseminated in many integrative review
studies, can figure out the problems these individuals face and how
organizations respond to them can be achieved. Therefore, analytical and
theoretical possibilities arise, which motivate the observation of socially
constructed and discursively produced actions. Consequently, the
essentialism that reduces careers and gender to a concrete existence,
limited to natural or biological action, is broken. In this sense, analyses
will hardly be complete just addressing the formal aspects of
organizations.
Therefore, when observing the considerations constructed by the
analyzed texts, the importance of paying attention to what is not spoken,
silenced, reproduced and normalized in everyday life in the most diverse
ways of exercising careers is also revealed (PRASAD; D’ABATE;
PRASAD, 2007). Thus, when aligning studies on careers with
observations and theories about gender, the importance of a position that
raises subjective and critical perceptions and reinforces contextual aspects
is noted. This commitment would be useful to this agenda and to other
investigations that interconnect the various contemporary relationships
that create limitations to the ascension of some individuals in their career
paths, as well as the use of methodological resources that evidence the
analysis of different contexts, which expose the structures of the formal
and informal organizations that maintain, disseminate and structure
differentiations for different groups.
4. Final considerations
This integrative analysis allowed us to visualize a theoretical
framework used to understand careers and gender together in studies
available in international research databases. Furthermore, exposing the
concepts and approaches linked to psychology, sociology, and
organizational studies, allowed us to highlight limitations arising from the
Careers studies and gender: approaches and perspectives
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restricted use of the concept of sex and generalist perceptions about its
impact on individuals' careers. With that, we stimulated the debate and
built new examples of the application of the theme to specific contexts.
Furthermore, from the premises of Torraco (2005; 2016), we
could understand the possibility of a theoretical opening to feminist
studies between the lines of the investigated studies. This vision allows us
to unravel how gender and careers intersect, relating them to categories
that reflect interconnected and mutually constitutive social differences
that build mechanisms of oppression for different subjects. Thus,
recapitulating seminal texts on the subject, we find in Marshall's (1989) a
call to this communion.
Marshall (1989) highlights that feminist theories act as an umbrella
of perspectives for career studies. Furthermore, it informs that being and
doing are continuous and are constantly evolving and changing. Thus, the
social, economic, identity and organizational transformations in feminist
perspectives from the 1960s onwards ascended various theoretical
positions ranging from the psychological to the structural, from the
biological to the social. Thus, for the study of careers, feminism is
fundamental for understanding the complex interaction between
individuals and the contextual structures in which they operate.
Marshall (1989) reinforces that career theory is attentive to gender
issues, mainly related to the negative points generated by stereotypes.
However, in some aspects, it does not address the devaluation of socially
marginalized groups at its core. From a feminist perspective, the
intention arises to review career theory, which is often rooted in
patriarchal values. Therefore, new visions must analyze careers covering
the individual's entire life. Thus, it is necessary to review the practices
used to understand them.
Therefore, an agenda aligned with this perspective should expose
the processes in which participants are co-creators of meaning in the
research. Through a conceptual sensitivity and language, to map and
value the various considerations that inform individual choices that
impact the formation of careers. In short, feminist theories for career
studies have a lively and lived perspective, which means that careers, and
their interactions with different contextual spheres, develop during the
daily lives of individuals, generating impacts on the theory and practice of
the modern scenario, as well as academically (ACKER, 1990, 2006;
HOLVINO, 2010; MARSHALL, 1989).
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This vision also makes it possible for us to answer questions such
as: Is there a difference in acceptance of the career restriction between
groups? What is the impact of race, gender, sexuality, and nationality,
among others, on the career decision process? Are the demands of your
home country relevant? Are there other forms of social identification that
restrict participation in careers? What objections do socially marginalized
groups face when interested in “traditional” careers? (OIKELOME;
HEALY, 2013).
An agenda aligned with this perspective can stimulate
transformations and change the meanings imposed on different
relationships, in addition to mapping and valuing the various
considerations that inform individual choices that impact the formation
of careers. However, there are limitations regarding the scope of the
study, and the method we used since the ability to synthesize the articles
depends on the author's deep understanding of the topic and its
literature. In addition, the guidelines outlined by Torraco (2016)
prevented us from using a large number of articles due to the
requirement for depth in the analyses. Therefore, our results cannot be
taken as a single truth. Otherwise, they act as drivers for new knowledge
and as a model to help overcome omissions, deficiencies or other
problems identified in the literature. Thus, the purpose is limited to the
conceptual follow-up reasoning, which enables readers to follow the
connections between the research problem, literature criticism, and
theoretical outcome.
In this sense, this integrative analysis reinforced the importance of
a broad, grounded understanding capable of exposing complex
relationships based on contexts and promoting analyses that expand and
welcome a plurality of evidence. A feminist approach carries ethical,
political, theoretical, and practical commitments that seek to transform
society through a plural analysis that has been neglected for various
reasons throughout its existence (hooks, 2014).
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BIODATA OF AUTHORS
Fernanda de Aguiar Zanola. Doctoral student at the Department of
Administration and Economics at the Federal University of Lavras
(DAE/UFLA), in the research area of Organizations and Societies. She
holds a degree in Business Administration (2017) and a Master’s in
Marketing, Strategy and Innovation (2019), both from the same
University (UFLA). In addition, she is a member of the NEORGS-
Nucleus of Studies in Organizations, Management and Society. At the
present time, it receives funding from FAPEMIG. Author's institutional.
Email: fernanda.zanola@estudante.ufla.br
Fernanda Cavalheiro Ruffino Rauber. Doctoral student at the
Department of Administration and Economics at the Federal University
of Lavras (DAE/UFLA), in the research area of Organizations and
Societies, member of NEORGS - Center for Studies in Organizations,
Management and Society. She holds a degree in Business Administration
(2009) and a Master's in Organizations and Societies (2022). At the
present time, it receives funding from CAPES. Author's institutional.
Email: fernanda.rauber2@estudante.ufla.br
Flaviana Andrade de Pádua Carvalho. Graduation and Master's in
Administration, respectively from the Higher School of Agriculture and
Lavras (1992) and Federal University of Lavras - UFLA (1997). PhD in
Business Administration from CEPEAD/FACE/Federal University of
Minas Gerais - UFMG (2015), area of concentration in people
management and organizational behavior. Linked to the permanent staff
of UFLA since 1997, developing administrative, teaching, research and
extension activities. She is an ad hoc scientific consultant for journals and
national and regional meetings in the area of Administration.
Collaborating professor of the Postgraduate Program in Administration
(PPGA)/UFLA. The thematic fields of interest are: career; organizational
studies. Author's institutional. Email: fapcar@ufla.br
Mônica Carvalho Alves Cappelle. Administrator and Doctor in
Administration from UFMG (2006). Currently, professor at DAE/UFLA
and lead researcher of the NEORGS research group. She works with an
emphasis on Organizational Studies, Research Methodology and People
Management, working mainly on the following topics: labor relations,
gender relations, subjectivity, identity, culture, career, power relations and
disciplinary power. author's institutional. Email: edmo@ufla.br
UNIVERSIDAD
DEL ZULIA
Revista de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales
Año 38, N° 99 (2022)
Esta revista fue editada en formato digital por el personal de la Oficina de
Publicaciones Científicas de la Facultad Experimental de Ciencias, Universidad del
Zulia. Maracaibo - Venezuela
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