Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
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Vol. 41, Nº 79 (2023), 213-227
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Experience of individual countries
of the European region regarding
implementation of international standards
for ensuring criminological and criminal-
legal protection of justice
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4179.14
Yuliia Khrystova *
Serhiy Miroshnychenko **
Iryna Kurbatova ***
Oleksiy Titarenkо ****
Maksym Maksimentsev *****
Abstract
The article describes the experience of Germany and Austria
in implementing international standards to ensure the protection
of criminological and criminal justice. In preparing this article, a
set of general and specic scientic research methods was used to dene
special subjects authorized to perform such criminological activities, the
peculiarities of their interaction with the police and other law enforcement
agencies, to reveal the content of legislative mandates on the organization
and functioning of the Court Security Services and their counterparts,
as well as that of the legislation on criminal liability for crimes against
justice. On the basis of the research results, perspectives were formulated
for improving the activities of the Court Security Service of Ukraine, its
interaction with the National Police and other entities of the state and non-
state sector in providing criminological protection of justice, as well as the
Ukrainian legislation on criminal liability for crimes against justice, taking
into account the experience of Germany and Austria in the implementation
of internationally recognized standards in this area.
* Doctoral student at the Department of Criminal Law and Criminology of Dnipropetrovsk State
University of Internal Aairs, Ukraine; PhD in Law, Associate Professor, Police Lieutenant Colonel.
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5175-9242. Email: khrystova.3108@gmail.com
** Professor, Doctor of Law, Professor of the Department of Criminal Law, Process and Forensics, Kyiv
Institute of Intellectual Property and Law of the National University "Odesa Law Academy". Ukraine.
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4215-1603. Email: sermir1708@gmail.com
*** Prosecutor of the Department of Kyiv City Prosecutor's Oce, Doctor of Law. Ukraine. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6636-2408. Email: kurbatova.iryna@gmail.com
**** Associate professor, Doctor of Science in Law, Professor at the Department of Law enforcement activity
and Criminal Law Disciplines, University of Customs and Finance, Ukraine. ORCID ID: http://orcid.
org/0000-0002-3271-9402. Email: titarenkoaleksey1978@gmail.com
***** Doctor of Law, Deputy Director, Legal Bureau “ALMEGA”. Ukraine. ORCID ID: http://orcid.
org/0000-0002-1173-9113. Email: maksiments@yahoo.com
214
Yuliia Khrystova, Serhiy Miroshnychenko, Iryna Kurbatova, Oleksiy Titarenkо y Maksym Maksimentsev
Experience of individual countries of the European region regarding implementation of
international standards for ensuring criminological and criminal-legal protection of justice
Keywords: criminological protection of justice; Judicial security
service; National Police of Ukraine; crimes against justice;
international standards.
Experiencia de países individuales de la región
europea en materia de implementación de normas
internacionales para garantizar la protección
criminológica y penal-legal de la justicia
Resumen
El artículo describe la experiencia de Alemania y Austria en la
implementación de estándares internacionales para garantizar la protección
de la justicia criminológica y penal. En la preparación de este artículo
se utilizó un conjunto de métodos de investigación cientíca generales
y especícos para denir sujetos especiales autorizados para realizar
tales actividades criminológicas, las peculiaridades de su interacción con
la policía y otros organismos encargados de hacer cumplir la ley, para
revelar el contenido de mandatos legislativos en materia de organización
y funcionamiento de los Servicios de Seguridad de los Tribunales y sus
homólogos, así como el de la legislación sobre responsabilidad penal por
delitos contra la justicia. Sobre la base de los resultados de la investigación,
se formularon perspectivas para mejorar las actividades del Servicio de
Seguridad Judicial de Ucrania, su interacción con la Policía Nacional y
otras entidades del sector estatal y no estatal en la prestación de protección
criminológica de la justicia, así como como la legislación de Ucrania sobre
responsabilidad penal por delitos contra la justicia, teniendo en cuenta la
experiencia de Alemania y Austria en la aplicación de normas reconocidas
por la comunidad internacional en este ámbito.
Palabras clave: protección criminológica de la justicia; servicio de
seguridad Judicial; Policía Nacional de Ucrania; delitos
contra la justicia; normas internacionales.
Introduction
Security management in the sphere of justice remains an unchanged
priority for many countries of the world, as well as an important topic of
international forums (Report of the Fourteenth United Nations Congress
on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, 2021) to ensure independence
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Vol. 41 Nº 79 (2023): 213-227
of judicial bodies (The main principles of independence of judicial bodies,
1985).
It is important that two signicant groups of priority tasks have
coincided for Ukraine at the moment: the rst one is related to the state’s
course towards European and Euro-Atlantic integration, which brought the
urgent need for judicial reform to the agenda (Strategy for development of
the justice system and constitutional judiciary for 2021–2023; On speeding
up judicial reform and overcoming manifestations of corruption in the
justice system in 2023); the second one relates to ensuring the protection
of justice in the special conditions of martial law and the de-occupation of
the territories of Ukraine, which places an additional burden on the newly
created Judicial Security Service and other entities authorized to perform
this criminological function and requires eective and coordinated measures
to be applied. The above points determine relevance of the scientic and
theoretical understanding of the experience acquired by the European
region countries in ensuring protection of justice for further determination
of promising directions in increasing the eciency of implementing the
criminological function of protection of justice by authorized subjects in
Ukraine which has become especially important in the sphere of ensuring
national security in conditions of martial law, respectively to the standards
recognized by the progressive international community in this area.
1. Literature review
First of all, let’s note that there is no unied international document
on the security of justice. However, certain elements of the standards for
ensuring security of justice were reected in international documents
(which dier in their legal force and scope) dedicated to the standards of
independence of the judiciary and judges. In particular, they were reected
in paragraphs 2.11 of the Basic principles of independence of judicial bodies,
approved by resolutions 40/32 and 40/146 of the UN General Assembly
(1985) as “the prohibition of undue inuence, inducements, pressure,
threats or interference in the activities of judicial bodies during decision of
cases transferred to them from any side and for any reason”, “guarantees
of the security of judicial bodies” (The main principles of independence
of judicial bodies, 1985: n/p), in point 5 of the Recommendations on the
eective implementation of the Basic Principles on the independence of
judicial bodies, adopted by the UN Economic and Social Council resolution
1989/60 and approved by the UN General Assembly resolution (1989) as
“provision by the state of the resources necessary to provide judges with a
decent level of personal security”; in Article 8 of the Universal Charter of
the Judge, adopted by the Central Council of the International Association
of Judges (1999) as “Security of oce” (Universal Charter of Judges, 1999)
etc.
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Yuliia Khrystova, Serhiy Miroshnychenko, Iryna Kurbatova, Oleksiy Titarenkо y Maksym Maksimentsev
Experience of individual countries of the European region regarding implementation of
international standards for ensuring criminological and criminal-legal protection of justice
Taking into account the fact that the specied international documents
were the subject of our consideration in the previous publication, without
resorting to a re-analysis of their content, as well as of the dierent points of
view of scientists on this issue and the justication of their own position, we
note that the main special international principles of ensuring security of
justice should include the following: a) ensuring personal safety of judges;
b) ensuring various levels of security in the buildings (premises/territories)
of courts (depending on the type of cases considered), as well as ensuring
zonal security measures; c) provision by the state of adequate resource
support for measures related to ensuring a decent level of personal security
for judges; d) prohibition of undue inuence on judges, inducements,
pressure, threats or interference in the activities of judicial bodies during
the resolution of cases assigned to them; e) ensuring safety of judges’ private
life and condentiality; f) ensuring security and protection of data systems
and organizational systems, including electronic justice (Khrystova, 2023).
In Ukraine, in 2019, a new state body was created in the justice system,
accountable to the Supreme Council of Justice and controlled by the
State Judicial Administration of Ukraine – the Court Security Service
(On the judiciary and the status of judges, 2016); this body was created
for provision of personal security of judges, members of their families and
court employees, for protection and maintenance of public order in courts,
as well as for ensuring safety of participants in court processes. However,
if necessary, during the performance of tasks and functions entrusted to
the specied special entity, other such entities (law enforcement subjects)
may be additionally involved; in particular, these are such entities as
the National Police of Ukraine, the National Guard of Ukraine, the State
Emergency Service of Ukraine, the Security Service of Ukraine; and the
procedure of interaction with these entities is regulated by a joint order (On
the approval of the Procedure for interaction of the Court Security Service
with the National Police of Ukraine, the National Guard of Ukraine, the
State Emergency Service of Ukraine, the Security Service of Ukraine during
performance of tasks and functions by the Court Security Service 2020).
The presented analysis of the experience of individual countries of
the European region in this area was carried out based on the author’s
understanding of the provision of criminological protection of justice as an
activity for the formation of an eective system of countering criminogenic
inuences and criminal oenses against justice in order for ensuring its
independence and for practical armation of the rule of law principle during
judicial proceedings, in particular, regarding granting of the following
powers to the subject (entity) determined for ensuring security of justice:
to stop and prevent oenses and crimes, to perform interaction with other
subjects and entities in the system of combating criminal oenses against
justice; perform early detection and countermeasures against possible
threats (Khrystova, 2022), based on studying relevant international
documents, foreign and Ukrainian legislation.
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2. Materials and methods
The research is based on the groundwork of foreign and Ukrainian
researchers on methodological approaches to ensuring criminological
security, criminal-legal protection of justice, as well as analysis of the
competence of the Court Security Services and their counterparts in terms
of the eectiveness of the tasks assigned to them. In this article, we will
consider the experience of implementing international standards for
provision of criminological and criminal-legal protection of justice in such
countries of the European region as Germany and Austria.
The methodological basis of this work is presented as a set of general
scientic and special scientic methods of cognition. In particular, with the
help of the dialectical method, the subjects authorized to ensure security of
justice in various countries of the European region, as well as peculiarities
of their interaction with the police and other law enforcement agencies,
were determined; the use of the special legal method of cognition made it
possible to reveal the content of legislative mandates regarding organization
and functioning of the Court Security Services and their counterparts, and
thanks to the method of comparative jurisprudence, their similarities and
dierences were revealed. Research of German and Austrian legislation on
criminal liability for criminal oenses against justice was also carried out
using the comparative legal method.
3. Results and discussion
First of all, it should be noted that in the European region countries,
the need to intensify cooperation between police forces and Security sta
in courts is constantly being updated. In particular, in 2023 alone, several
incidents related to security occurred in German courts, for example, as a
result of two cases of escape of defendants from the courthouse in Bavaria,
the Minister of Justice ordered to perform a comprehensive security review
of all courts, and also emphasized the need to review operational concepts
of security in cooperation with the police (Friz and Rössert, 2023). In the
same year, during the announcement of the sentence at the Ludenscheid
District Court, the defendant jumped over the barrier to the judge’s desk
and attacked the judge, knocking him to the ground, biting his hand and
trying to hit him (Tylchyk et al., 2022).
This attack was stopped by police ocers who were present in the
courtroom as witnesses in the case under consideration (Krumm, 2023). A
similar high-prole extraordinary incident happened in Ukraine this year.
In particular, in the Shevchenkivskyi District Court of Kyiv, the accused
made an attempt to escape from custody in the court premises with the
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Yuliia Khrystova, Serhiy Miroshnychenko, Iryna Kurbatova, Oleksiy Titarenkо y Maksym Maksimentsev
Experience of individual countries of the European region regarding implementation of
international standards for ensuring criminological and criminal-legal protection of justice
help of an explosive device, as a result of the explosion he died on the spot,
and two law enforcement ocers were injured (About the extraordinary
event that occurred on 05 July, 2023 in the Shevchenkivsky District
Court of Kyiv and regarding the duration of the trial). At the same time,
it should be emphasized that it was possible to prevent human casualties
among the meeting participants, judges, sta members, and court visitors
thanks to the coordinated actions of representatives of the National Police,
special-purpose divisions, and representatives of the Court Security Service
(Salnikov, 2023).
Moving on to the analysis of the experience acquired by the countries
of the European region regarding implementing standards of ensuring the
security of justice recognized by the international community, it should
be noted that in most of these countries execution of this criminological
function is entrusted to special entities, - Court Security Services and their
counterparts, each of them having its own features of organization and
functioning (Kobrusieva et al., 2021).
Thus, in Germany, the task of maintaining security and order in court
buildings, including the corresponding associated enclosed outdoor areas,
is carried out by the Judicial Sergeant Service. In addition, employees
under a collective agreement (for example, in the courts and prosecutors’
oces of the state of Brandenburg (Chapter XI of the Service Regulations
for Sergeant Service 2011) and employees of the general judicial service
can be involved in the performance of security tasks and equated to the
court security services, (e.g. in accordance with the content of paragraph
28 “Powers in relation to prisoners and detainees” and paragraph 29
“Application of direct coercion” of the Justice Act in the state of Berlin
(Justice Act in the state of Berlin, 2021).
Organization and functioning of the above mentioned service is
regulated at the level of the law of the respective federal state (by the Act on
the Powers of the Sergeant Service, adopted by the Parliament of the state
of Brandenburg, 2019) and/or by a decree, issued by the minister of justice
of the respective state (for example, Service Regulations for the Sergeant’s
Service, 2011), taking into account the requirements of the Constitution of
the federal state on the protection of personal rights and data protection,
as well as by relevant provisions of federal legislation, for example, the
Law Regulating the Status of Civil Servants in the Federal States (The Law
Regulating the Status of Civil Servants in the Federal States, 2008).
For comparison, in Ukraine, in the absence of the law “On the Court
Security Service” the legal status of this service is regulated by separate
provisions of such normative legal acts as the Law of Ukraine “On the
Judiciary and the Status of Judges” (Chapter 4 “Court Security Service”
of Section XI “Organizational Support to the Activities of Courts”) (On
the Judiciary and the Status of Judges, 2016); Regulation “On the Court
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Security Service”, approved by the Decision of the Supreme Council of
Justice (Regulation on the Court Security Service, 2019); as well as the
Laws of Ukraine “On the National Police” (in terms of the use of coercive
police measures, etc.), “On security activities”, “On civil service”, “On
trade unions, their rights and guarantees of activity”, “On prevention of
corruption” (Horbalinskiy et al., 2023).
According to the results of the analysis of the legal support of the
organization and functioning of special entities authorized to carry out
criminological activities to ensure security of justice carried out within
the scope of this research, it is necessary to note the positive experience of
Germany regarding the regulation at the legislative level of the legal status
of the Security sta of the Judicial Sergeant Service and the general judicial
service, in terms of their performance of security tasks as law enforcement
ocers, as well as the determination of their powers at the legislative level
(for example, in Section 5 “Security and Order” of the Law on Justice in
the state of Berlin (Justice Act in the state of Berlin, 2021); subparagraph
1.1. (b) Paragraph 1 “Tasks” of the Service regulations on the service of a
sergeant of the Ministry of Justice of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate
(Service regulations on the service of a sergeant of the Ministry of Justice of
the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, 2021) etc.
For example, in Ukraine, the issue of the legal status of Court Security
Service sta members still remains without a proper solution, which has
been repeatedly emphasized by scientists who devoted their works to the
research of this issue (Titarenko, 2021), as well as by the leadership of the
Service, with proposals made to include it in the list of law enforcement
agencies provided for in Part 1 of Article 2 of the Law of Ukraine “On
State Protection of Court Employees and Law Enforcement Agencies”,
supplementing it in the prescribed manner with the text of the appropriate
content (Matviichuk et al., 2022).
Also worthy of special attention is the experience of the legal regulation
of the leaders’ obligation to hold quarterly meetings of all service employees
to discuss the current regulations on the sergeant’s service, analyze the
practice of application of these regulations, and deepen existing knowledge
(Chapter IX “Service Meetings” of the Service Regulations for Sergeant
Service of the state of Brandenburg (Service Regulations for Sergeant
Service, 2011).
The experience of development and presentation of the framework
concept of security for courts and law enforcement agencies by the Berlin
Senates in 2018 should be taken as a positive point (Zadyraka et al., 2023).
(Framework concept of security for courts and law enforcement agencies
in Berlin, 2018); this concept developed with the involvement of both
representatives from the specied spheres of activity and independent
experts allows to make fundamental, innovative decisions to solve important
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Experience of individual countries of the European region regarding implementation of
international standards for ensuring criminological and criminal-legal protection of justice
issues for ensuring security of Justice (The response of the Berlin Senate to
the written request of MP Mike Penn, 2019). In particular, it is noteworthy
that the stated security concept is based on the design characteristics of
court buildings (for example, the size and risks associated with their use),
proposed are minimum safety standards for the construction of court
buildings and government bodies, as well as for the entrance control,
alarm systems, emergency action plans, court sergeant’s service, etc. The
implementation of this Concept is monitored by a steering committee for
judicial security issues, which updates it and responds to changes in the
security situation in the justice system of Berlin (The response of the Berlin
Senate to the written request of MP Mike Penn, 2019).
In Austria, the entities specically authorized to carry out security
checks in court buildings are the control bodies, represented by both court
employees appointed for this purpose by the court building administrator,
as well as by employees of security companies entrusted by the heads of
higher regional courts to carry out security inspections under the contract
approved by the Federal Minister of Justice (§§ 3, 9 Court Organization Act,
1896).
It is worth noting that the rst subsection of the rst section of
the Austrian Court Organization Act is dedicated to security in court
buildings and external court proceedings, which thereby emphasizes
its importance for the organization of the administration of justice. Also
worthy of attention is the regulation at the legislative level of the specics
of documenting and registering attacks and serious threats against justice
and prosecutor’s oces, as well as other employees working in the judicial
system and participants in court proceedings, as well as any other form of
violent confrontation, damage to property in a court or prosecutor’s oce
and in the adjacent territories (§ 15 Court Organization Act, 1896). It also
states that more detailed requirements for security standards in court
buildings should be regulated by the Federal Minister of Justice in security
instructions (Leheza et al., 2022).
Speaking about the criminal-legal protection of justice, it should be noted
that the German Criminal Code does not have a separate section dedicated
to such norms. They are scattered in dierent sections of its Special Part.
Thus, the norms on criminal liability for acts that interfere with justice
are contained in the following sections: the seventh one “Oences against
public order”, the ninth one “False unsworn testimony and perjury”, the
tenth one “Casting false suspicion”, the twenty-rst one “Aiding after the
fact and handling stolen goods” and the thirtieth one “Oenses committed
in public oce” (Law of Germany, 1998). For comparison, in the Special
Part of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, there is a separate chapter XVIII
“Criminal oenses against justice” (Law of Ukraine, 2001).
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Regarding the dierentiation of criminal responsibility both for criminal
oenses against justice and for corruption criminal oenses committed by
a special subject - judges, the norms of section 332 “Taking bribes” of the
Special Part of the German Criminal Code are worth noting; according to the
second part of this section judges are subject to a more severe punishment
in the form of imprisonment for a term of one to ten years (Law of Germany,
1998).
In turn, the criminal liability of judges for violating the law to the benet
of the parties or detriment of the parties during the conduct or resolution
of a legal case is provided for in section 339 “Judicial perversion of justice”
of the thirtieth Chapter “Oenses committed in public oce” of the Special
Part of the German Criminal Code. For the commission of a mentioned act,
punishment is prescribed in the form of deprivation of liberty for a term of
one to ve years (Law of Germany, 1998).
For comparison, in Ukraine, Article 375 “Provision by a judge (judges)
of a knowingly unjust sentence, decision, ruling or resolution” of the Special
Part of the Criminal Code, which determines responsibility for taking such
actions for selsh motives and other personal interests, is excluded (Law
of Ukraine, 2001), since the Constitutional Court of Ukraine recognized it
as inconsistent with the Constitution of Ukraine (it is unconstitutional),
creating risks and opportunities to inuence judges due to the vagueness
and ambiguity of the disposition (Decision of the Constitutional Court,
2020). Thus, today in Ukraine, the issue of criminal liability of a judge
for a notoriously unjust decision has remained without proper legislative
regulation. Currently, the agenda of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine
includes four draft laws (No. 3500; No. 3500-1; No. 3500-2; No. 3500-3)
on making relevant changes to the Criminal Code (On the agenda of the
tenth session of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine of the ninth convocation,
2023).
In the Criminal Code of Austria, in contrast to the criminal legislation
of Germany, the rules on responsibility for criminal oenses against justice
are allocated to a separate (twenty-rst) section “Criminal acts against
justice” (Law of Austria, 1974). When it comes to the experience of Austria
regarding the criminal-legal protection of justice, a positive point in our
opinion consists in establishment of the responsibility (in § 301 of the
Criminal Code) for prohibited publication of a message about the content
of a court hearing, which was closed to the public, about the discussion
of court proceedings in a printed edition, on the radio or in another way
accessible to the general public (Law of Austria, 1974).
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Experience of individual countries of the European region regarding implementation of
international standards for ensuring criminological and criminal-legal protection of justice
Conclusions
According to the results of analyzing experience of individual countries of
the European region (Germany and Austria) regarding the implementation
of international standards for ensuring criminological and criminal-legal
protection of justice, the following can be stated:
- in the mentioned countries execution of this criminological function
is entrusted to specially authorized services in the system of the
Ministry of Justice. In particular, in Germany it is the Judicial Sergeant
Service “Justizwachtmeisterdienstes”, which can involve both court
sergeants and security sta equivalent to them under a collective
agreement (vergleichbare tariich Beschäftigte), as well as employees
of the general judicial service (“allgemeinen Justizdienstes”), and in
Austria, these are the control bodies “Kontrollorgane”, represented
by both court employees and employees of security companies;
- in Germany, there is a separate law dedicated to legal regulation of
the status of these services and their employees, and a framework
concept of security for courts and law enforcement agencies has been
implemented. In Austria, the powers and tasks of control bodies,
as well as security measures in court buildings and external court
proceedings are dened in the Court Organization Act;
1. In contrast to the criminal legislation of Austria the Criminal Code of
Germany does not have a separate section dedicated to criminal acts
against justice. Norms on responsibility for such acts are scattered in
dierent sections of its Special Part;
- in general, a comparative analysis of the criminal legislation of
Germany, Austria and Ukraine demonstrated that dierent types and
sizes of punishments were established for certain similar criminal
oenses against justice, which is due to the state policy of these
countries regarding the criminal-legal protection of justice.
2. In order to improve activity of the Court Security Service of Ukraine,
taking into account the standards of ensuring security of justice
recognized by the international community, we consider that it
would be prospective to introduce the following points of foreign
experience to the national legislation:
- development (in cooperation with subjects and independent experts
involved in the implementation of the criminological function of
ensuring security of justice) and implementation of the Concept of
ensuring security and countering criminal oenses against justice in
Ukraine this concept should presuppose determination of minimum
security standards for construction of court buildings, ensuring their
various levels security, including alarm systems, security systems,
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data protection systems and organizational systems, including
electronic justice, as well as zonal security measures, emergency
action plans, standards for training and advanced training of
employees of the Court Security Service, their interaction with
employees of the National Police, the National Guard, the State
Emergency Service of Ukraine, the Security Service of Ukraine.
In addition, in order to monitor changes in the security situation
and promptly respond to such changes (at the local, regional, and
national levels), it is advisable to create a separate subcommittee on
justice and security of judicial activities within the structure of the
Verkhovna Rada Committee on Legal Policy and Justice considering
issues of judicial system;
- regulation at the legislative level of the status of the Court Security
Service and its employees as one of the bodies with law enforcement
functions and the classication of its sta as employees of a law
enforcement agency;
- preservation of the monopoly on issues of ensuring criminological
security of justice by a special entity - the Court Security Service,
but with the possibility for other entities of the state and non-state
sectors to be involved in this activity;
3. As for the improvement of the criminal-legal provision of the security
of justice, within the existing new judicial reform, which lasts from
2021 to 2023, it should be considered appropriate to provide for
the appropriate dierentiation of criminal liability in the current
Criminal Code of Ukraine both for criminal oenses against justice
and for corruption criminal oenses committed by a special subject -
judges.
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Esta revista fue editada en formato digital y publicada
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Vol.41 Nº 79
