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Vol. 39, Nº 68 (Enero - Junio) 2021, 723-734
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Recibido el 08/09/2020 Aceptado el 12/12/2020
Rules of criminal liability for corruption
offences and their prevention
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3968.46
Borovyk Andrii *
Vartyletska Inna **
Vasylenko Yuliia ***
Patyk Andrii ****
Pochanska Olena *****
Abstract
The objective of the article is to conduct a comparative legal
study of Ukrainian and international standards of criminal
liability for corruption offences and their prevention. The research
methodology includes the following methods: system-structural
method, formal-dogmatic method, historical method, grouping
method, comparative-legal method, legal modeling method and
others. As a result, the peculiarities of anti-corruption regulatory-legal
provisions and police practice in the states analyzed are claried, with the
selection of relevant positive and negative trends, principles of construction
of anti-corruption policy, specicity of the conceptual apparatus, etc.
Emphasis is placed on the need to further harmonize Ukrainian legislation
with international agreements and the practice of their implementation. It
is concluded that negative trends in foreign countries have been found to
be the result of non-compliance with relevant commitments to combat and
prevent corruption.
Keywords: criminal offences ofcorruption; international anti-corruption
standards; Ukrainian experience in the ght against
corruption; criminal liability; crime prevention.
* PhD in Law, Associate Professor, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Economic Sciences of
Ukraine, Professor of the Department of Criminal Law and Justice of Academician Stepan Demianchuk
International University of Economics and Humanities. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
1834-404X. Email: mail@megu.edu.ua
** PhD in Law, Associate Professor, Professor of Criminal Law Department of the National Academy of
Internal Affairs. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3447-0567. Email: kkpnavs@ukr.net
*** PhD in Law, Associate Professor at the Department of Criminal Law, Criminal Procedure and
Criminalistics of Kyiv Institute of Intellectual Property and Law of the National University «Odessa
Law Academy». ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4037-8257. Email: Kiev_iiv@onua.edu.ua
**** PhD in Law, Head of the Research Laboratory for Forensic Support and Forensic Examination of
the Educational and Scientic Institute №2 of the National Academy of Internal Affairs. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3259-454X. Еmail: NDLPEKZ@ukr.net
***** Associate Professor of the Department of Legal Support of Economic Activity of the Faculty №6 of
Kharkiv National University of Internal Affairs. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3953-8660.
Email: epochanskaya@gmail.com
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Borovyk Andrii, Vartyletska Inna, Vasylenko Yuliia, Patyk Andrii y Pochanska Olena
Rules of criminal liability for corruption offences and their prevention
Normas de responsabilidad penal por delitos de
corrupción y su prevención
Resumen
El objetivo del artículo es realizar un estudio jurídico comparado de
los estándares ucranianos e internacionales de responsabilidad penal por
delitos de corrupción y su prevención. La metodología de investigación
incluye los siguientes métodos: método sistema-estructural, método
formal-dogmático, método histórico, método de agrupamiento, método
comparativo-legal, método de modelado legal y otros. A modo de
resultados se aclaran las peculiaridades de las disposiciones normativo-
legales anticorrupción y la práctica policial en los estados analizados,
con la selección de tendencias positivas y negativas relevantes, principios
de construcción de la política anticorrupción, especicidad del aparato
conceptual, etc. Se hace hincapié en la necesidad de armonizar aún más
la legislación ucraniana con los acuerdos internacionales y la práctica
de su aplicación. Se concluye que se ha comprobado que las tendencias
negativas en países extranjeros son el resultado del incumplimiento de los
compromisos pertinentes para combatir y prevenir la corrupción.
Palabras clave: delitos penales de corrupción; normas internacionales
anticorrupción; experiencia ucraniana en la lucha
contra la corrupción; responsabilidad penal; prevención
del delito.
Introduction
The article presents a comparative legal study of national and foreign
standards of criminal liability for corruption offenses and their prevention.
Performing a comparative legal study of national standards of criminal
liability for corruption offenses and their prevention will allow:
• rstly, to understand the degree of regulation of relevant criminal
law and criminological provisions at the level of individual States.
• secondly, to assess the extent to which the legislators of individual
countries have taken into account the requirements of international
and European anti-corruption conventions, treaties, protocols,
directives, etc.
• thirdly, to nd out the features of anti-corruption regulations and law
enforcement practices in the analyzed countries, to highlighting the
relevant positive and negative trends, the principles of establishing
anti-corruption policy, the specics of the conceptual apparatus, etc.
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It is necessary to note that in some cases Ukraine implement the foreign
practice inadequately, ambiguously and almost mechanically (verbatim)
borrows conventional provisions.
In our opinion, doctrinal denitions of corruption criminal offenses can
only be of secondary importance, as the current law of Ukraine on criminal
liability directly determines the format of such offenses.
Unfortunately, those few works of domestic forensic scientists dedicated
to this issue contain just several provisions on criminal offenses related to
corruption., None of them contain at least a general concept of this type
of offence or dene their characteristics and types. There are currently no
comprehensive scientic studies on this topic, and the existing scientic
publications on this issue do not reveal the essence of “criminal offenses
related to corruption”.
1. Methodology
The choice of research methods is determined by the subject of the
research. A set of methods of both general and special scientic knowledge
was used. The study is based on such principles of dialectical cognition as
historicism, comprehensiveness, objectivity, specicity, determinism, etc.
Such logical methods as analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization,
deduction, induction, analogy, etc. were widely used within the article.
System and structural method, which assumes that all phenomena
are considered as elements of systems, allowed to consider criminal
responsibility as a component of the system of legal measures to combat
corruption.
Formal and dogmatic method allowed to analyze the norms of the
current legislation of Ukraine and some countries of the world, which
establish criminal responsibility for corruption offences.
Historical method helped to trace the dynamics of the development of
anti-corruption legislation of some countries of the world.
Clustering method was applied for identifying conceptual foundations
of anti-corruption legislation of foreign countries as well as generalized
models of corruption (based on the historical and cultural principle).
Using a comparative legal method, the rules governing the prosecution
of corruption offenses in Ukraine and in some countries of the world were
compared.
Legal modeling method made it possible to substantiate the relevant
conclusions and proposals.
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Borovyk Andrii, Vartyletska Inna, Vasylenko Yuliia, Patyk Andrii y Pochanska Olena
Rules of criminal liability for corruption offences and their prevention
2. Literature Review
The issue of liability for corruption offences is the topic of scientic works
of a number of foreign and domestic scientists. For example, Meyer et al.,
(2012) considered some problems of corruption in the USA. In particular,
they investigated legal framework for ghting this negative phenomenon,
provided us with the denition of “bribery”, “public ofcial” and described
the consequences of corruption on different levels.
The same problem was the topic of investigation by Mcinerney (2002).
He studied federal legal acts regulating the issue of bribery, namely the
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and the Federal Bribery Statute. Regulation
of bribery on the State level was also the part of his investigation.
The issue of criminal liability for corruption offences of legal entities
was examined by Meyer et al., (2014). The scholars tried to nd out to what
extent the companies can be held liable for corruption offences committed by
their employees. They also studied the measures that should be undertaken
by the companies for corruption prevention and their responsibility for
insignicant adoption of these measures. To do this the authors studied the
relevant legislation of England and the Netherlands.
Bribery and corruption in Singapore were studied by Chan and Ling
(2020). They state that this country shows no tolerance towards corruption
and the problem of corruption is regulated by a number of legal acts, namely
by the Penal Code, the Prevention of Corruption Act, Corruption, Drag
Trafcking and other serious Crimes Act, etc. They also investigated law
enforcement and police activities in this sphere, as well as the peculiarities
of investigation of corruption offences.
The modern approaches to ghting corruption in Russia were studied
by Vorontsov et al., (2018); Iran’s criminal policy regarding economic
corruptions was examined by Ardestani (2017), legislative regulation of
the peculiarities for bringing employees for responsibility for committing
corruption or corruption-related offense in Ukraine was investigated by
Podorozhnii et al., (2020).
3. Results and Discussion
Ukraine has been building a law-based State on the example of the
European community, in which an individual, his (her) life and health,
honor and dignity, inviolability and security are the greatest social values
(Kyslyi et al., 2020). That is why studying foreign experience in corruption
preventing and ghting this negative phenomenon is of the utmost
importance.
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Scholars emphasize that foreign experience is characterized using
various methods, strategies, and techniques to combat corruption that are
effective in their country (e.g., Sweden, Singapore and Germany), but there
are no universal methods to combat this phenomenon, although there are
principles that are effective in the respective State (Kuptsova and Riutov,
2017).
Finland, Denmark, New Zealand, Iceland, Singapore, Sweden, Canada,
the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Australia, Switzerland, the United
Kingdom, Austria, Israel, the United States, Chile, Ireland, Germany and
others are the countries that have created an effective anti-corruption
mechanism (although each of these countries has its own peculiarities
in the organization of anti-corruption activities, they have a common
denominators: efforts to organize active counteraction to corruption;
creation of an appropriate legal framework; involvement of public
organizations in combating corruption) (Topchii et al., 2016). In fact, a
similar list is given by other scholars, noting that the methods of combating
corruption in foreign countries are quite diverse – from the formation of
effective anti-corruption legislation to the promotion of law-abiding high
moral types of employee behavior (Hotyzheva, 2018).
One can often nd a number of corruption offenses in the national
legislation of foreign countries, among which the most serious are: bribery
of ofcials; bribery in private business; inuence trade; fraud; stealing;
abuse of ofce; illegal enrichment and money laundering (Council of
Europe, 2014). It should be noted that the concept of “Corruption Criminal
Offenses” and its derivatives (including “corruption”) are widely used in
the criminal law of a number of foreign countries, including the post-Soviet
ones. For example, the Penal Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan (Law no.
787-IQ/1999 of December 30) provides for liability for “corruption offences
and other offences against the interests of the service” (Articles 308 – 314-
3); the Penal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Law no. 226-V/2014 of
July 3) provides for the liability for “corruption and other criminal offenses
against the interests of the civil service and public administration” (Articles
361 – 371). The Penal Code of the Kyrgyz Republic (Law no. 985-XV/2016 of
December 22) distinguishes between “corruption and other crimes against
the interests of the State and municipal service” (Chapter 44 of the Special
Part) and directly “corruption” (Article 319) as a crime. The Penal Code
of the Republic of Moldova (LAW no. 985-XV/2002 of April 18) directly
enshrines passive (Article 324) and active (Article 325) corruption among
the crimes against the proper order of work in the public sphere (Chapter
XV of the Special Part), as well corruption crimes in the private sector as a
separate type of crime (Chapter XVI of the Special Part).
As for the classication of anti-corruption foreign legislation, it will be
difcult to do, as the degree, form and level of regulation of anti-corruption
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Borovyk Andrii, Vartyletska Inna, Vasylenko Yuliia, Patyk Andrii y Pochanska Olena
Rules of criminal liability for corruption offences and their prevention
activity and prevention of corruption differ in each country (even in the
case of economic and political alliances such as the EU). They depend on
the existence of specic laws to prevent (and / or counter) corruption or the
absence of such laws, overwhelming focus on corrupt ofcial (bribe-taker,
public ofcial) or the person who gives bribes, assigning responsibility for
acts of corruption directly on natural persons of both on natural persons
and legal entities (corporations), corruption prevention denitions
enshrined in public service laws or their enshrinement mainly in bylaws,
priority of corruption prevention or ghting the corruption, focus on foreign
corruption instead of the corruption on the national level, etc.
For example, the Federal Law on Corruption Abroad of 1977 (USA), the
Law on Corruption of Foreign Ofcials of 1988 (Canada), and the Law on
Bribery of 2010 (Great Britain) are widely discussed in the legal literature
due to their effectiveness. There are a number of anti-corruption legal acts
in Singapore, which is one of the least corrupt countries in the world: The
Penal Code, the Prevention of Corruption Act, Corruption, Drag Trafcking
and other serious Crimes Act, etc.
The report “Anti-corruption trends and changes in 2019” (Chambers
and Partners, 2019) states that in recent years, many countries:
- rstly, adopted new anti-corruption legislation or improved existing
laws, in particular:
a) in 2018 India amended the Act on Corruption Prevention,
expanding the responsibility for those who bribe and for
public bribery of companies; just civil servants who received
bribes were persecuted before then.
b) in 2019 Italy improved anti-corruption legislation by
increasing penalties for individuals and companies for some
corruption criminal offences and expanding the meaning of
the term “foreign civil servant”.
c) in 2018 Russia passed laws that provide prosecutors with
new means to combat corruption, allow courts to freeze
the assets of companies under investigation for corruption
offences, up to the maximum amount of any potential ne
(the law also provided companies with so-called protection
from prosecution for bribery, if they facilitate the detection or
investigation of bribery or prove that they were bribed);
- secondly, strengthened international cooperation, as well as
cooperation between domestic law enforcement agencies, for
example:
a) The United Kingdom, according to the United States model,
passed in 2014 the Law that defer prosecution under
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agreements, under which the prosecutor has the right to
defer criminal prosecution in exchange for the consent of the
defendant (British Bank) to comply with certain requirements
(in particular, pay nes, carry out corporate reforms, cooperate
with the investigation); Canada did so in 2017;
b) In 2018, the United States passed the Law on the Use of
Updated Legal Foreign Data (CLOUD Act), which allowed the
US government to access data stored in foreign countries, and
vice versa.
Note that the conceptual foundations of anti-corruption legislation of
foreign countries, according to some scholars, should be considered the
presence of:
1) specialized anti-corruption bodies (for example, in Italy it is the Ofce
of Investigation – Antimaa, in Singapore – Bureau for Investigation
of Corruption, in France – Corruption Prevention Service, Central
Chamber of Accounts, Central Ofce for punishment of nancial
violations in the nancial sphere, Central Directorate of General
Information).
2) legal framework for combating and preventing corruption (for
example, in Finland, anti-corruption rules do not primarily dene
the type of crime, but a specic area of activity, hence corruption is
prevented at the stage of its emergence; in Belgium, the emphasis is
on clarifying lawful conduct and anti-corruption standards; Romania
has had the Law on the prevention, detection and punishment of
corruption since. 2000).
3) a) national programs, strategies, doctrines (for example, Poland has
approved the State program “Anti-Corruption Strategy”, while in
Slovakia there is a “National Anti-Corruption Program”).
b) legislation to combat conicts of interest in the public service
(e.g. Spain passed the Law against the use of members of
the government and senior government ofcials for personal
purposes (codes of professional ethics) in 2006; the US “Code
of Ethics for Civil Service” has dened the moral standards for
ofcials since 1958; Spain adopted the Code of Ethics for Civil
Servants in 2007)’
c) criminal liability of legal persons for corruption offenses (for
example, in Switzerland such liability has been introduced since
2004, in Montenegro – since 2005).
d) prohibition on lobbying (for example, the US Honest Leadership
and Open Government Act of September 14, 2007 enshrines the
order of the disclose of information about lobbying and funding,
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Borovyk Andrii, Vartyletska Inna, Vasylenko Yuliia, Patyk Andrii y Pochanska Olena
Rules of criminal liability for corruption offences and their prevention
limits gifts to members of Congress and their staff, provides for
mandatory disclosure of their costs), etc. (Fadieiev, 2015).
Taking into account the experience of different States Nevmerzhytskyi
(2009) and Voloshenko (2018) offer the following generalized models of
corruption based on the historical and cultural principle:
1) Asian.
2) African.
3) Latin American.
4) Western European.
As for the EU States, scholars divide them into three groups according
to the level of corruption:
• the “Corrupt South” (southern Catholic countries) – Italy, Spain,
Greece, Belgium, Portugal, France, etc.
• the “Pure North” (northern Protestant countries) – Denmark,
Sweden, the Netherlands, Finland, etc.
• Countries that are at a level of corruption between the two previous
groups – Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Luxembourg, Ireland,
etc., (Pujas and Rhodes, 1999).
In general, according to Buryak (2020), the success of the ght against
corruption in the EU countries depends not only on the presence or absence
of anti-corruption infrastructure in the country, but on economic, historical,
cultural and many other factors that usually lie outside the legal area. The
image of a high-ranking ofcial in the public consciousness is identied
with a person who performs important functions – pursues State policy
and serves the population. Corruption is perceived by the governments
of these countries as a serious problem of national security. At the same
time, corruption is seen as an internal and external threat. It is quite
important that efforts to limit corruption in these countries are, as a rule,
are institutionalized and impressive in scale.
In this regard the following should be noted: rstly, Organization for
Economic and Social Development (OECD), and in particular its Anti-
Corruption Network for Eastern Europe and Central Asia, is one of the
most among the number of organizations for cooperation in preventing
and combating corruption offenses; secondly, the reports of international
experts have a signicant impact on the attractiveness of countries for
foreign investors (for example, this is a positive assessment of Ukraine
provided by the experts of the Council of Europe (2014), UN, OECD and
other organizations, which is especially important in the context of our
country’s intention to integrate into the European Union).
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At the same time, non-fulllment of the relevant obligations to combat
and prevent corruption is the negative trends in foreign countries. For
example, GRECO states that not every CoE Member State adheres to
the implementation of anti-corruption recommendations (in particular,
negative conclusions were made in 2019 regarding Germany, to which the
«non-compliance procedure» has been applied, as well as with respect to
the Republic of Belarus, Hungary, Luxembourg, Ireland, Turkey, Romania,
Portugal, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Northern Macedonia, and
Austria).
As for Ukraine, the national standards of criminal liability for corruption
offenses and their prevention are represented by the provisions of the
relevant domestic laws and regulations, as well as implemented international
(including European) conventions, treaties, protocols, and other documents.
As a rule, the ofcial websites of State bodies, institutions and enterprises
publish a general list of domestic (Constitution of Ukraine, relevant laws of
Ukraine, codes, decrees of the President of Ukraine, resolutions and orders
of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, departmental documents, etc.)
and international (relevant conventions, agreements, statutes, etc.) anti-
corruption regulations, among which there are documents that are directly
related to combating and preventing corruption offenses.
In our opinion, the provisions of the Criminal Code of Ukraine and
the Law of Ukraine “On Corruption Prevention” are of fundamental
importance for accountability and prevention of corruption offenses. The
National Agency for Corruption Prevention annual national reports on
the implementation of the principles of anti-corruption policy are also
important, as they are the main documents that summarize all data on the
state of corruption in the country.
Conclusion
Summarizing the above, it is necessary to agree with Holovkin and
Timchenko (2015) and conclude that the new system of anti-corruption
legislation is in the process of being adopted in Ukraine, due to the passing
the laws of Ukraine on the cleansing of power, prevention of corruption,
the National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine, the Prosecutor’s Ofce of
Ukraine, the State Bureau of Investigation, etc., and is “the beginning of
a profound reform of the system of anti-corruption activity in Ukraine”.
At the same time, in today’s context, the formation of the legislative and
institutional framework for the development and implementation of state
anti-corruption policy is not fully completed in Ukraine and therec is a need
for the further harmonization of domestic legislation with international
agreements and their application (Dorokhina and Moroz 2019).
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Borovyk Andrii, Vartyletska Inna, Vasylenko Yuliia, Patyk Andrii y Pochanska Olena
Rules of criminal liability for corruption offences and their prevention
The strategic direction in the ght against corruption in Ukraine remains
its prevention in the form of comprehensive precautionary measures, which
include:
• dening a strategy for socio-economic development and
administrative reform.
• formation of the ideology of the civil service, i.e. its moral principles
and values;
• ensuring the transparency of State power and increasing its social
value.
• -improvement of anti-corruption legislation.
• real manifestation of political will.
• specic actions to represent corruption as a risky and unprotable
activity.
• improving the activities of law enforcement agencies, etc.
In the context of political and criminological prevention and
counteraction to corruption it is proposed: to change the way the public
sector performs its duties due to the principle of integrity in public service;
to emphasize the implementation of the political will of government
ofcials; to change the existing approaches that have been formed in the
public consciousness regarding the perception of corruption as a common
phenomenon; to introduce the system of principles of public life; to increase
the level of professionalism of ofcials; to create opportunities for access by
all segments of the population to using the services of private companies
through a system of benets, subsidies for certain categories of citizens;
to ensure maximum transparency of election procedures, the activities of
ofcials exclusively in a politically neutral manner, as well as transparency
and independence of the media, etc.
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