© The Authors, 2023, Published by the Universidad del Zulia
*Corresponding author: bmurillo04@cibnor.mx
Ricardo Ortega-Pérez
1
Eduardo Alberto Toyes-Vargas
2
José Luís Espinoza-Villavicencio
1
Alejandro Palacios-Espinosa
1
Juan José Montes-Sánchez
3
Bernardo Murillo-Amador
4
*
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40(1): e234008
ISSN 2477-9407
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v40.n1.08
Food Technology
Associate editor: Dra. Gretty R. Ettiene Rojas.
University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy.
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
Keywords:
Dry and rainy seasons
Dairy goats
Fatty acid content
Connement
Fatty acid content of Creole-Nubia goat milk with dierent seasonal diets in an intensive
feeding system in an arid region
Contenido de ácidos grasos en leche de cabra criolla-Nubia con diferentes dietas estacionales en un
sistema de alimentación intensiva en una región árida
Teor de ácidos graxos do leite de cabra Crioula-Núbia com diferentes dietas sazonais em um sistema
de alimentação intensiva em uma região árida
1
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, La Paz, Baja
California Sur,
Autónoma de Baja California Sur, México.
2
Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of
Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.
3
CONACYT-Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste,
S.C. Independencia y Paseo Eucalipto, Guerrero Negro, Mulegé,
Baja California Sur, México. C.P. 23940.
4
Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C.
Avenida Instituto Politécnico Nacional No. 195. Colonia Playa
Palo de Santa Rita Sur. La Paz, Baja California Sur, México.
C.P. 23096.
Received: 22-11-2022
Accepted: 13-01-2023
Published: 17-02-2023
Abstract
The objective is to determine the seasonal-diet eect (dry, rainy) on goats’
milk fatty acid prole reared on a farm with an intensive production system
located in an arid zone of Mexico. In the rainy season, a group of 10 goats,
Creole × Anglo-Nubian, consumed a diet composed exclusively of alfalfa
hay (Medicago sativa L.). Meanwhile, in the dry season, a similar goat group
ate a mixture of corn (Zea mays L.) and sorghum grains (Sorghum bicolor
(L.) Moench, 1794) and buel grass hay (Cenchrus ciliaris L.) in a 1:1:1
ratio. The goats were between 90 and 180 days of lactation. The saturated,
monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and branched-chain fatty acids in milk
were measured. The rainy-season milk showed a higher content of fatty
acids; however, the contents of most types of fatty acids were not signicant
between seasons, except for the polyunsaturated (18:2 n-6, α-linoleic acid)
and highly unsaturated fatty acids (arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, and
docosahexaenoic acid).
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40(1): e234008. Enero-Marzo. ISSN 2477-9408.2-6 |
Resumen
El objetivo es determinar el efecto de la dieta estacional (seca y
lluviosa) en la composición de ácidos grasos en la leche de cabras
estabuladas en una zona árida de México. Durante la época de lluvias,
un grupo de 10 cabras, criolla × Anglo-Nubia, consumieron una dieta
compuesta exclusivamente de heno de alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.).
En la época seca, un grupo similar de cabras consumió una mezcla de
granos de maíz (Zea mays L.), granos de sorgo (Sorghum bicolor (L.)
(Moench, 1794) y heno de pasto buel (Cenchrus ciliaris L.), en una
proporción 1:1:1. Las cabras estaban entre 90 y 180 días de lactación.
La composición de ácidos grasos saturados, monoinsaturados,
poliinsaturados y de cadena ramicada se determinó en leche. Los
resultados mostraron un contenido de ácidos grasos mayor durante
la época de lluvias; sin embargo, la mayoría de las diferencias en
los tipos de ácidos grasos fueron no signicativas, excepto para los
ácidos grasos poliinsaturados (18:2 n-6, α-ácido linoleico) y los ácidos
grasos altamente insaturados (ácido araquidónico, eicosapentaenoico
y docosahexaenoico).
Palabras clave: estaciones seca y lluviosa, caprinos lecheros,
contenido de ácidos grasos, connamiento.
Resumo
O objetivo é determinar a variação sazonal (seca e chuvosa) da
qualidade da composição de ácidos graxos em um sistema de produção
intensivo em uma região árida de México; especicamente em
termos da composição de ácidos graxos saturados, monoinsaturados
(MUFA), poliinsaturados (PUFA) e de cadeia ramicada. Durante
a estação chuvosa, a dieta aplicada aos caprinos foi alfafa (Medicago
sativa L.), e na estação seca, uma mistura de milho (Zea mays L.),
grãos de sorgo (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, 1794) e feno de
capim-buel (Cenchrus ciliaris L.) foi fornecido na proporção de
1:1:1. Dois grupos de 10 crioulos × anglo-nubia foram amostrados
durante o estudo; as amostras de leite foram coletadas no nal da
estação chuvosa (dezembro) e durante a estação seca (junho) ordenha
manual uma vez ao dia entre 7:00 e 9:00 h, 25 mL de leite de ambos
os horários foram coletados de cada amostra coletada quando estava
entre 90 e 180 dias de lactação. Os resultados mostraram um maior
teor de ácidos graxos durante a estação chuvosa, mas não foram
encontradas alterações signicativas no conteúdo para a maioria dos
ácidos graxos totais, exceto para os ácidos graxos poliinsaturados
(18:2 n-6, α-ácido linoleico) e ácidos graxos altamente insaturados.
Palavras-chave: seca e chuvosa, cabras leiteiras, teor de ácidos
graxos, connamento.
Introduction
Goats are well-adapted animals to arid regions, and their milk is
a rich source of bioavailable fat (Evershed et al., 2008). The goat-
milk fat micelles have a small diameter and are mainly composed of
short- and medium-chain fatty acids (Chen et al., 2016). These fatty
acids have great digestibility and absorption and benet for human
health (Milewski et al., 2018). The fatty acids in goat milk are readily
digested and absorbed by humans and are not only nutritious but aid
in the overall health of the individual. Some of its benecial properties
are anti-obesity, anti-carcinogenic, and anti-diabetic (Belury, 2002).
The animal production system and the diets used aect goat milk
quality, such as grazing (extensive system) and controlled feed in
connements (intensive system) (Renna et al., 2012). Considering that
goat farming is developed in arid and semi-arid regions of Mexico,
a better understanding of goat milk quality in extensive production
systems is imperative, because of is the main production system used
in these areas. In this farming system goats graze freely on native
vegetation, which could vary due to season and rainfall amount
(Manzano et al., 2000). However, the use of intensive production
systems on farms has increased in Mexico. The objective is to
determine the saturated, monounsaturated (MUFA), polyunsaturated
(PUFA), and branched-chain fatty acid composition of goat milk in
an intensive production system in two seasonal diets (dry and rainy)
in an arid zone of Mexico.
Material and methods
Study area
This study was carried out on a private goat farm located at
25º11’55’’ N and 111º42’07’’ W, in Los Algarrobos, agricultural eld
in Ciudad Insurgentes, B.C.S., Mexico. In this arid zone, the dry
season is between January and June, and the rainy season is between
July and December. The mean temperatures are 18.7 ºC during the
rainy and 22.1 ºC during the dry season (INEGI, 2006).
Animals
Twenty lactating Creole × Anglo-Nubian goats (n=20) of 56 ± 2.0
kg live weight and 3.0 ± 0.5 (1-5 scale) body conditions were used in
the study. The does were not pregnant and in good health. The does
were in their 2nd or 3rd lactation, and the average milk production in
the samplings was 1.4 ± 0.2 L per day.
One group of 10 does per season were sampled. Ten goats were
housed in a 40-m
2
pen (5 m × 8 m), which gave an area of 2 m
2
per
animal, with drinkers and feeders. Goats were kept in connement
and fed ad libitum. The milk samples were collected twice each
season: March and June in the dry and September and December
in the rainy season (20 milk samples per season). The milk samples
were collected by manual milking once daily between 7:00 and 9:00
h. The does were between 90 and 180 days of lactation. According to
Kelsey et al. (2003) days on milk do not aect the fatty acids content.
Twenty-ve milliliters of milk were collected per goat in a sterile
Falcon tube that was sealed, tagged, and placed on ice to carry to
the laboratory. The milk samples were stored at -80 °C until their
chemical analysis. The milk samples were analyzed by triplicate.
Seasonal diets ingredients
The diets were oered ad libitum to both groups throughout
lactation; however, a baseline of 3 % body weight daily consumption
on a dry basis per animal was considered. The rainy-season diet
consisted of exclusively lucerne hay (Medicago sativa L.) and the
dry-season diet was a mixed ration consisting of 33 % sorghum grain
(Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, 1794), 33 % corn grain (Zea mays
L.), and 33 % buel grass hay (Cenchrus ciliaris L.). Feed sampling
was done at the same time as milk sampling.
Seasonal diets chemical composition
The diets samples were dried at 100 ºC for dry matter (DM)
determination and dried at 55 ºC for chemical analysis until constant
weight in an oven (HTP-80, Ariston Thermo
®
, MA, USA). Samples
for chemical analysis were ground to ≤ 1 mm size. Ash (A) was
determined by combustion at 600 °C for 5 hours using a mued
furnace (Thermoline 6000, Dubuque IA, USA). The Micro-Kjeldahl
method was used to measure the total nitrogen (TN); crude protein
= +
+
1
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Ortega-Pérez et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023 40(1): e234008
3-6 |
(CP)=TN×6.25. Crude ber (CF), gross energy (GE), and ether extract
(EE) were analyzed by standard methods (AOAC, 2005). Ether
extract (lipids) were analyzed by the Soxtec Avanti method (AOAC,
2005). Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) was calculated arithmetically: 100
% - (% moisture + % EE + % CP + % CF + % A). The diet samples
were analyzed in triplicate. Data of the two samples per season were
averaged.
Composition of milk fatty acids
Standard methods were used to extract milk lipids (Bligh and
Dyer, 1959). Total lipids were quantied by the accepted standard
methodology (Marsh and Weinstein, 1966). The concentration of the
fatty acids was measured in a chromatograph-gas spectrophotometer
(Varian CP3800-1200, SpectraLab
®
, Canada) at 375 nm having a
30 m length OmegaWax
®
250 (Sigma-Aldrich Co., Missouri, USA)
capillary column made of fused polyethylene glycol silica, at a ow
rate of 1.2 mL.min
-1
, with 0.25 µm/0.25 mm (inner diameter/lm
thickness). Wsearch32 Version 1.6 was used to identify the fatty acids
and concentration by interpolating the area of peaks and by using as a
reference ve known concentrations of 37 standard esteried methyl
fatty acids (FAME mix, 37 components, Supelco, TraceCERT
®
,
Sigma-Aldrich Co., Missouri, USA) at ve concentration values (5,
10, 20, 40 and 80 µg.mL
-1
).
Statistical analyses
Statistica
®
v. 13.5 (TIBCO
®
Software Inc., 2018) was used to
analyze the data by univariate analysis of variance. Homogeneity
of variance was determined using Bartlett’s Box-test. The Tukey’s
HSD was used to assess statistical dierences between means and
two p-values were used for testing signicance, p<0.05 and p<0.01.
The following statistical model was used:
in which is the quantitative response variable, μ is the overall
mean, = the seasonal diets; random experimental error.
Results and discussion
Seasonal diets chemical composition
The chemical composition of dry and rainy seasonal diets is
shown in table 1. The rainy-seasonal diet had greater content of GE,
CP, and A (p<0.05); meanwhile, the dry-seasonal diet had greater
content of DM, EE, CF and NFE (p<0.05).
Composition of milk fatty acids
There were no signicant dierences between seasonal diets for
saturated, branched-chain, Omega-3, and Omega-6 fatty acids in the
milk. The milk Omega-3/Omega-6 fatty acid ratio was not dierent
between seasonal diets. The rainy-seasonal diet had a higher amount
of polyunsaturated fatty acids than the dry-seasonal diet (p<0.05); it
was 5-6 % greater in the rainy seasonal diet than in the dry seasonal
diet (table 2).
The higher total content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the rainy
seasonal diet (table 2) agrees with Moate et al. (2007). Polyunsaturated
fatty acids are widely reported in milk, and their presence and
dierences may be due to seasonal variation of the anaerobic fungi
population in the rumen (Koppova et al., 2008). Milewski et al.
(2018) reported that the fat from winter milk showed higher content
of long-chained SFA and MUFA than the summer milk. The goat-
milk fatty acid content is aected by variables such as dietary fat
supplementation (Ayeb et al., 2015) and season (Czarniawska-Zajac
et al., 2006).
Table 1. Chemical analysis of the seasonal diets of goats in an
intensive system in an arid zone of Mexico.
Seasonal diets
Rainy (Diet 1) Dry (Diet 2) Signicance
Dry matter (%) 92.37±0.05 b 94.05±0.18 a NS
Crude protein (%) 17.68±0.35 a 9.31±0.07 b **
Crude ber (%) 20.69±0.20 b 22.52±0.22 a **
Ash (%) 11.17±0.04 a 8.21±0.05 b **
Nitrogen-free
extract (%)
49.72±0.52 b 58.38±0.23 a **
Gross energy
(Mcal.kg
-1
)
4453.44±29.82 a 4244.39±17.19 b **
Ether extract (%) 0.72±0.02b 1.56±0.09 a **
Fatty acids (%) 11.40±1.23 b 28.04±2.14 a **
C12:0 0.00±0.0 a 0.00±0.0 a NS
C14:0 0.14±0.01 a 0.13±0.03 a NS
C16:0 2.67±0.98 b 4.13±0.085 a *
C18:0 0.68±0.03 b 1.27±0.12 a *
C18:1 1.13±0.96 b 4.29±1.04 a *
C18:2 3.26±0.87 b 13.25±1.23 a **
C18:3 0.00±0.0 b 3.64±0.05 a **
Dry-season diet: a mixture of sorgo and corn grains, and buel grass hay (a rate of
1:1:1, as a fed); rainy-season diet: lucerne hay. NS= Not signicant (p>0.05); *=
p<0.05; **= p<0.01. Rows with dierent letters dier signicantly (Tukey HSD
p=0.05). The values represent the mean ± the standard deviation.
Table 2. Major classes of fatty acids (µg.mg
-1
) concentration of
goat milk-fed in an intensive system with dierent
seasonal diets in an arid zone of Mexico.
Fatty acids (FA)
Seasonal diets
Rainy (Diet 1) Dry (Diet 2)
Signicance
Saturated 975.2±156.19 a 895.3±150.30 a NS
Monounsaturated 242.3±33.20 a 159.9±36.96 a NS
Polyunsaturated 82.7±9.68 a 66.1±18.43 b *
Branched-chain 49.6±4.53 a 40.2±7.96 a NS
Omega-3 26.3±1.46 a 21.4±1.21 a NS
Omega-6 57.9±3.78 a 48.8±2.89 a NS
Omega-3/
Omega-6 ratio
0.45±0.04 a 0.44±0.07 a NS
NS= Not signicant (p>0.05); *= p<0.05. Rows with dierent letters dier
signicantly (Tukey HSD p=0.05). The values represent the mean ± the standard
deviation.
Two FA of very low concentration, eicosanoic (C20:0) and
heneicosanoic acids (C21:0), were found in both dry and rainy
seasons; being less abundant in the dry season (p<0.01) (table 3).
The oleic acid (C18:1 n-9) was far from the copious monounsaturated
FA in both sampling seasons, coinciding with Chilliard et al. (2005).
Yurchenko et al. (2018) indicate that the FA prole C18:1 n-9 is
high in the Swedish Landrace breed milk. The origin of the large
= +
+
1
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40(1): e234008. Enero-Marzo. ISSN 2477-9408.4-6 |
proportions of oleic acid could be due to elevated production
of delta-9-desaturase that readily catalyzes 18-carbon FA in the
mammary gland
Table 3. Saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids
concentration (µg.mg
-1
) in the milk from goats fed
in an intensive production system with dierent
seasonal diets in an arid zone of Mexico.
Saturated FA
Seasonal diets
Rainy (Diet 1) Dry (Diet 2) Signicance
C12:0 109.64±34.95 a 106.61±60.61 a NS
C13:0 2.31±0.52 a 2.10±1.14 a NS
C14:0 259.04±69.99 a 243.84±98.40 a NS
C15:0 24.08±6.27 a 21.75±8.25 a NS
C16:0 420.40±318.33a 358.40±316.99 a NS
C17:0 16.42±4.01 a 14.61±6.28 a NS
C18:0 147.69±56.00 a 118.90±101.31 a NS
C19:0 3.01±0.87 a 2.19±0.73 a NS
C20:0 5.65±1.34 a 3.52±1.98 b **
C21:0 1.99±0.47 a 1.28±0.44 b **
C22:0 2.73±0.61 a 2.36±0.80 a NS
C23:0 2.67±0.59 a 2.57±0.98 a NS
Monounsaturated
FA
C14:1 n-5 8.63±1.31 a 3.15±1.20 a NS
C14:1 n-7 0.87±0.33 a 0.55±0.25 a NS
C15:1 n-7 3.15±0.48 a 2.06±1.17 b **
C16:1 n-1 0.92±0.36 a 0.81±0.38 a NS
C16:1 n-3 1.13±0.20 a 0.73±0.45 b **
C16:1 n-5 2.18±0.70 a 1.75±0.47 a NS
C16:1 n-7 15.22±4.30 a 15.10±3.80 a NS
C16:1 n-9 5.62±1.11 a 5.25±2.54 a NS
C17:1 n-3 6.57±1.87 a 4.93±3.05 a NS
C17:1 n-5 0.38±0.23 a 0.19±0.92 a NS
C18:1 n-3 5.24±0.18 a 3.06±0.31 b **
C18:1 n-5 3.95±1.03 a 1.51±0.99 b **
C18:1 n-6 11.26±3.12 a 4.60±3.18 b **
C18:1 n-7 3.27±0.14 a 1.39±0.30 b **
C18:1 n-9 153.97±1.01a 95.35±1.11 b **
C18:1 trans
15.46±3.29 a 9.03±4.74 a NS
C19:1 1.93±0.74 a 1.63±0.82 a NS
C20:1 n-11 3.86±0.26 a 1.54±0.63 b **
C20:1 n-3 0.38±0.02 a 0.16±0.08 a NS
C20:1 n-9 1.01±0.05 a 0.36±0.03 b **
C22:1 n-9 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 NS
C24:1 n-9 2.54±0.90 a 1.63±0.44 b **
NS= Not signicant (p>0.05); **= p<0.01. Rows with dierent letters dier
signicantly (Tukey HSD p=0.05). The values represent the mean ± the standard
deviation.
(Chilliard and Lamberet, 2001). This seasonal variation coincides
with a study of Delgadillo-Puga et al. (2009) who found dierences
in FA in cheese in dierent seasons. Also, the rainy-season milk had
higher concentrations of monounsaturated FA than the dry-season
milk. These dierences could be attributed to the higher availability
of 18-carbon FA in rainy-season forages (Lock and Garnsworthy,
2003).
Total monounsaturated FA did not show signicant dierences
among seasons; however, the concentration of some individual
monounsaturated FAs was higher in the rainy season than in the dry
season (p<0.01; table 3). Many isomers of C16:1 and C20:1 were
identied in this study, albeit at very low concentrations had higher
concentrations in the rainy seasonal diet. The low concentration of
these isomers could be attributed to the low activity of the enzyme
delta-9-desaturase for fatty acids of less-18-carbon chains (Christie,
1995). Cabrita et al. (2007) argue that the de novo synthesis from
acetate is the primary source of less-18-carbon fatty acids in the
mammary gland. However, Yurchenko et al. (2018) reported that
fatty acids C12 to C16, C18:1, and half of the long-chain FAs (≥
C18) are sensitive to feeding, and C4:0-C14:0 FAs are originated
by de novo synthesis in the mammary gland.
Signicant dierences of linoleic acid were shown between
seasons, being higher during the rainy season. The proportions
obtained coincide with those reported by Christie (1995). The
dierences due to seasons could be that the fodder given to the goats
is fresher in the rainy season, leading to higher polyunsaturated FA
concentrations (Elgersma et al., 2006). This assumption seems to be
generally correct because fresh food availability in the rainy season
is associated with higher concentrations of polyunsaturated FA. In
this regard, Lock and Garnsworthy (2003) noted that unsaturated
FA concentrations depend largely on the ruminal production of
vaccenic acid and is produced through the biohydrogenation
of C18:3 y C18:2 by microorganisms in the rumen. If FA C18:3
is in greater amounts in the milk of goats consuming green
fodder, then combined endogenous enzymatic conversions in the
mammary gland should lead to higher concentrations of vaccenic
acid (C18:1trans11/n-7). However, this intensive system showed
signicant dierences in the concentration of linoleic acid, which
is contrary to the results reported by Lock and Garnsworthy (2003).
The C18:2 n-6 cis (linoleic acid, LA) showed dierent amounts
(p<0.05) between seasonal diets. Also, C19:2, C20:3 n-6, C20:4 n-6
(arachidonic acid, AA), C20:5 n-3 (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA),
C22:5 n-3, and C22:6 n-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA) showed
dierences between seasons (p<0.01). The amounts of this FA
were higher in the milk from the rainy seasonal diet (table 4). In
the present study, polyunsaturated FA showed low concentrations
in milk.
The proportion of C:12, C:16, CLA and C18:3 was inuenced
(p<0.05) by the breed-production system. Also, the age of does and
lactation stage had a signicant impact on the amount of some milk
fatty acids (Gharibi et al., 2020). For branched FA, C14:0 anteiso
had a higher concentration in the rainy-season milk (p<0.01) than
in the dry season (table 4). Up to 50 % of the trans FA in dairy
fat consists of vaccenic acid. Chilliard et al. (2000) reported that
diets containing oilseeds like soybeans are widely used to feed
stabled animals; this is done to manipulate the composition of FA
in the animal-origin products. Nudda et al. (2005) measured the
fatty acid content in the milk and dairy products of sheep fed on
native grass, nding that concentrations of C18:3 n-3 decreased 36
% between spring and summer. The quality and quantity of pastures
decrease, caused by a lignication process of plant tissues that
signicantly reduces the degradability of the dry matter of forages
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Ortega-Pérez et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023 40(1): e234008
5-6 |
Table 4. Polyunsaturated and branched fatty acids concentration
(µg.mg
-1
) in the milk of goats fed in an intensive
production system with dierent seasonal diets in an arid
zone of Mexico.
Polyunsaturated FA
Seasonal diets
Signicance
Rainy
(Diet 1)
Dry
(Diet 2)
C18:2 n-5 1.38±0.69 a 1.17±0.41 a NS
C18:2 n-6 cis
45.48±6.38 a 32.77±31.02 b *
C18:2 n-6 trans
1.13±0.53 a 0.88±0.44 a NS
C18:3 n-3 cis
15.51±3.29 a 13.86±5.03 a NS
C18:3 n-3 trans
0.76±0.16 a 0.54±0.14 a NS
C18:3 n-6 0.57±0.02 a 0.42±0.06 a NS
C19:2 7.64±2.37 a 3.38±1.29 b **
C20:3 n-3 0.18±0.02 a 0.14±0.06 a NS
C20:3 n-6 5.44±0.38 a 2.49±0.76 b **
C20:4 n-6 5.44±0.43 a 2.49±1.54 b **
C20:5 n-3 2.21±0.58 a 1.60±1.16 b **
C22:5 n-3 4.12±0.31 a 2.62±1.02 b **
C22:6 n-3 1.84±0.98a 0.98±0.03 b **
Branched FA
C12:0 iso 2.93±1.20 a 2.24±1.17 a NS
C13:0 iso 1.94±0.67 a 1.66±0.76 a NS
C14:0 iso 4.28±3.13 a 4.27±2.44 a NS
C14:0 anteiso
9.94±1.39 a 5.84±2.47 b **
C15:0 iso 12.04±5.79 a 10.47±3.65 a NS
C15:0 anteiso
0.70±0.30 a 0.42±0.04 a NS
C16:0 iso 7.07±2.25 a 6.91±3.31 a NS
C16:0 anteiso
9.19±1.77 a 7.32±2.56 a NS
C17:0 iso 1.33±0.20 a 0.98±0.14 a NS
C17:0 anteiso
0.28±0.01 a 0.16±0.05 a NS
C18:0 iso 0.77±0.23 a 0.75±0.30 a NS
NS=Not signicant (p>0.05); *=p<0.05, **=p<0.01. Rows with dierent letters
dier signicantly (Tukey HSD p=0.05). The values represent the mean ± the
standard deviation.
(Nudda et al., 2005). Delgadillo-Puga et al. (2009) compared animal
production systems, grazing against housing, and found that the
higher polyunsaturated FA was C18:2 in both treatments. Comparable
results were observed in this study. Wol et al. (1995) described that
eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic, and other fatty acids of >20
carbons are synthesized in minute quantities. Talpur et al. (2008)
found that the milk fatty acid composition varies signicantly
throughout the year in goats on a traditional feeding regimen. This
is supported by Bernacka’s (2005) results, which indicate extensive
dierences in the milk composition of goats with dierent diets in
summer and winter. The presence of FA of 20-to-22-carbon chains
can be an outcome of the addition of sh oils in the diet because they
contribute to lipids content and their inhibitory eect on the saturation
of vaccenic acid, favoring de novo synthesis (Shingeld et al., 2003).
Marine-derived ingredients, such as sh meal and oil, are common
in feeds or concentrates supplied to animals. Therefore, dierences
showed in a number of these polyunsaturated FA present during the
two seasonal diets, maybe due exclusively to the quantity of food
consumed, balanced, or concentrated, since it has been reported that
these polyunsaturated FA are lacking in the fat of animals that have
not received supplements (Chilliard and Lamberet, 2001).
Feeding forages such as canola silage in fully mixed rations
to Alpine goats may modify some polyunsaturated and highly
unsaturated fatty acids in milk (Mejía-Uribe et al., 2022). The
importance of this type of compound is that they are used to develop
organoleptic characteristics that are unique to goat milk and its by-
products, such as taste and smell (Chilliard and Lamberet, 2001).
Eleven branched FAs with 12-18 carbon chains, 4 anteiso, and 7
iso isomers were detected. It is well known that branched FAs with
<11 carbons are mainly found in goat cheese since it is virtually
non-existent in bovine milk. Furthermore, this work agrees with
Vlaeminck et al. (2006), the outstanding branched FAs are those of a
15-carbon chain. These authors also reported that cellulolytic bacteria
(e.g., Ruminococcus avefaciens) could cause variations in the
branched FA concentrations, and amylolytic bacteria (e.g., Prevotella
ruminicola) could cause variations of anteiso FAs. Although some of
these types of FAs can be synthesized de novo in the mammary gland
(Chilliard and Lamberet, 2001). In general, there was no seasonal
diets variation of most FA concentrations, except C14:0 anteiso,
which may be due to the variation of amylolytic bacteria in the rumen.
Across all types of fatty acids, polyunsaturated FAs were dierent
between seasonal diets, higher in the rainy season. Meanwhile, the
other fatty acid types just trended to show high amounts in the rainy
season. For instance, the most plentiful FA type was the saturated
fatty acids, 68.0 and 72.7 % in the rainy and dry seasons, respectively,
although they do not dier signicantly. In order of abundance
from greatest to least, the most representative saturated fatty acids
were palmitic (C16:0), myristic (C14:0), stearic (C18:0), and lauric
(C12:0). They tended to be more abundant in the rainy season.
The monounsaturated fatty acids (15-20 % of FA) had minimum
concentrations but were the most numerous in isomers. The oleic
acid was the most abundant monounsaturated FA, with about 12 % of
total FA, and many monounsaturated FA showed signicant seasonal
dierences. The linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6 cis) and alpha-linolenic acid
(C18:3 n-3 cis) were the primary polyunsaturated FA (concentration
of 5-6 %), with average concentrations of 3 % and 1.2 %, respectively.
Signicant seasonal diets dierences were found in C18:2 n-6 cis
polyunsaturated fatty acid and many lower concentration isomers,
C19:2, C20:3n-6, C20:4n-6, C20:5n-3, C22:5 n-3, and C22:6n-3,
all of them were more abundant in the rainy season. Branched FA
concentrations were highly variable; C15:0 iso, C14:0 anteiso, and
C16:0 anteiso were the most abundant constituents in the rainy
season, but only C14:0 anteiso was signicantly dierent. Milewski
et al. (2018) reported that summer milk had a higher proportion of
PUFA n-6 and PUFA n-3 in the fat.
In the quantity of FA, no signicant seasonal eects were found
in goat milk, except polyunsaturated FA. However, in terms of
quality, signicant seasonal dierences were found in many of the
individual constituents of some FA, particularly in monounsaturated
and polyunsaturated. The quality of goat milk varies seasonally (dry
and rainy), although not the quantity of most FA. The concentration
of all FA was greater in the milk collected in the rainy than in the dry
season; however, the dierence was not signicant in some cases. The
inuence of seasonal diets on the quality of goat milk is associated
with seasonal dierences in the forage quality provided since the
forage used was produced locally. This study identied that there
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40(1): e234008. Enero-Marzo. ISSN 2477-9408.6-6 |
are changes per seasonal diets in the quality of goat milk concerning
FA in the intensive production system. In conducting the study, a
methodological requirement was to use the same diet that is produced
locally with local feedstus that farmers use to feed goats. The study
has practical utility because it determined the seasonal diets change
in the lipids of goat milk. One limitation of the study caused by the
need to maintain the same diet as that used by the farmers is that it is
not possible to quantify the eect or contribution of the two factors
diet or metabolic-environmental in the change of the quality of the
milk per season, because both changed during the seasons. Under
intensive production system, the goat produces milk that is richer in
favorable nutritional components that can contribute to improving
the characterization of goat dairy products, thus adding value to its
market (Lopez et al., 2019).
Conclusions
The content of FA is higher in the rainy seasonal diet. The content
of polyunsaturated FA and highly unsaturated FA (AA, EPA, and
DHA) are dierent among seasonal diets.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge Dolores Rondero-Astorga, and Pedro Luna-
García for technical support.
Literature cited
AOAC - Association of Ocial Analytical Chemistry (2005). Ocial Methods of
Analysis. 18th ed. AOAC International, Washington, DC. https://www.
aoac.org/
Ayeb, N., Addis, M., Fiori, M., Khorchani, S., Atigui, M., & Khorchani, T. (2015).
Quality and fatty acid prole of the milk of indigenous goats subjected to
dierent local diets in Tunisian arid lands. Journal of Animal Physiology
and Animal Nutrition, 100(1), 101-108. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12344
Belury, M.A. (2002). Dietary conjugated linoleic acid in health: Physiological
eects and mechanisms of action. Annual Review of Nutrition, 22(1), 505-
531. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.021302.121842
Bernacka, H. (2005). Eect of breed and feeding season on the nutritive quality
of goat milk. Folia Biologica (Kraków), 53(1), 99-102. https://doi.
org/10.3409/173491605775789209
Bligh, E.G., and Dyer, W.J.A. (1959). A rapid method of total lipid extraction and
purication. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 37(8),
911-917. https://doi.org/10.1139/o59-099
Cabrita, A.R.J., Bessa, R.J.B., Alves, S.P., Dewhurst, R.J., & Fonseca, A.J.M.
(2007). Eects of dietary protein and starch on intake, milk production,
and milk fatty acid proles of dairy cows fed corn silage-based diets.
Journal of Dairy Science, 90(3), 1429-1439. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.
S0022-0302(07)71628-4
Chen, H., Bao, C.H., Shu, G., & Wang, C.H. (2016). Response surface
methodology for optimizing fermentation conditions of goat yogurt with
Bidobacterium bidum and Lactobacillus casei. Emirates Journal of
Food and Agriculture, 28(8), 547-553. https://www.ejfa.me/index.php/
journal/article/view/1146
Chilliard, Y., Ferlay, A., Mansbridge, R.M., & Doreau, M. (2000). Ruminant milk
fat plasticity: nutritional control of saturated, polyunsaturated, trans, and
conjugated fatty acids. Annales de Zootechnie, 49 (3), 181-205. https://
doi.org/10.1051/animres:2000117
Chilliard, Y., & Lamberet, G. (2001). Biochemical characteristics of goat milk
lipids and lipolytic system. A comparison with cows and human milk.
Eect of lipid supplementation. In: Goat milk quality, raw material for
cheesemaking. Freund, G. (ed). Institut Technique des Produits Laitiers
Caprins (ITPLC), Ed. Surgères, France. pp. 71-114. https://hal.inrae.fr/
hal-02842365
Chilliard Y., Rouel J., Ferlay A., Bernard L., Gaborit P., Raynal-Ljutovac K., &
Lauret A. (2005). Eects of type of forage and lipid supplementation on
goat milk fatty acids and sensorial properties of cheeses. In: Future of the
sheep and goat dairy sector, special issue No 0501/part 5, International
Dairy Federation. pp. 297-304. http://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.
php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=17209772
Christie, W.W. (1995). Composition and structure of milk lipids. In: Advanced
Dairy Chemistry 2: Lipids. Fox, P.F. (ed). Second edition. Chapman and
Hall (Ed), London, England. p.1-42.
Czarniawska-Zajac, S., Brzostowski, H., & Zielazny, M. (2006). Eect of the
feeding period on the chemical composition and fatty acid prole of milk
from French Alpine dairy goats. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition
Sciences, 15/56 (1s), 51-55. http://journal.pan.olsztyn.pl/pdf-98672-
30485?lename=EFFECT%20OF%20THE%20FEEDING.pdf
Delgadillo-Puga, C., Cuchillo-Hilario, M., & Pérez-Gil, F. (2009). Eect of
feeding management and seasonal variation on fatty acid composition of
Mexican soft raw goats’ milk cheese. Italian Journal of Animal Science,
8(2), 402-404. http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2009.s2.402
Elgersma, A., Tamminga, S., & Ellen, G. (2006). Modifying milk composition
through forage. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 131(3-4), 207-225.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2006.06.012
Evershed, R.P., Payne, S., Sherratt, A.G., Copley, M.S., Coolidge, J., Urem-
Kotsu, D., Kotsakis, K., Özdoğan, M., Özdoğan, A.E., Nieuwenhuyse,
O., Akkermans, P.M.M.G., Bailey, D., Andeescu, R.R., Campbell, S.,
Farid, S., Hodder, I., Yalman, N., Özbaşaran, M., Bıçakcı, E., Garnkel,
Y., Levy, T., & Burton, M.M. (2008). Earliest date for milk use in the Near
East and southeastern Europe linked to cattle herding. Nature, 455, 528-
531. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07180
Gharibi, H., Rashidi, A., Jahani-Azizabadi, H., & Mahmoudi, P. (2020).
Evaluation of milk characteristics and fatty acid proles in Markhoz and
Kurdish hairy goats. Small Ruminant Research, 192, 106195. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2020.106195
INEGI-Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. (2006). Sistemas Nacionales
Estadísticos y de Información Geográca. México. https://www.inegi.
com.mx
Kelsey, J.A., Corl, B.A., Collier, R.J., & Bauman, D.E. (2003). The eect of breed,
parity, and stage of lactation on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in milk fat
from dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science, 86(8), 2588-2597. https://doi.
org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(03)73854-5
Koppova, I., Novotna, Z., Strosova, L., & Fliegerova, K. (2008). Analysis of fatty
acid composition of anaerobic rumen fungi. Folia Microbiologica, 53(3),
217-220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-008-0029-7
Lock, A.L., and Garnsworthy, P.C. (2003). Seasonal variation in milk conjugated
linoleic acid and delta-9-desaturase activity in dairy cows. Livestock
Production Science, 79(1), 47-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-
6226(02)00118-5
Lopez, A., Vasconi, M., Moretti, V.M., & Bellagamba, F. (2019). Fatty acid prole
in goat milk from high- and low-input conventional and organic systems.
Animals, 9(7), 452. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9070452
Manzano, M.G., Návar, J., Pando-Moreno, M., & Martínez, A. (2000). Overgrazing
and desertication in northern México, highlights on Northeastern region.
Annals of Arid Zone, 39(3), 285-304. https://epubs.icar.org.in/index.php/
AAZ/article/view/65874
Marsh, J.B., and Weinstein, D.B. (1966). Simple charring method for determination
of lipids. Journal of Lipid Research, 7(4), 574-576.
Mejía-Uribe, L.A., Domínguez-Vara, I.A, Hernández-Ruipérez, F., & Morales-
Almaráz, E. 2022. Production and milk fatty acids prole of dairy goats
fed with canola silage (Brassica napus) instead of corn silage (Zea mays)
in total mixed rations. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 25:1-9.
http://doi.org/10.56369/tsaes.3717
Milewski, S., Zbek, K., Antoszkiewicz, Z., Taski, Z., & Sobczak, A. (2018).
Impact of production season on the chemical composition and health
properties of goat milk and rennet cheese. Emirates Journal of Food
and Agriculture, 30(2), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.9755/ejfa.2018.v30.
i2.1602
Moate, P.J., Chalupa, W., Boston, R.C., & Lean, I.J. (2007). Milk fatty acids. I.
Variation in the concentration of individual fatty acids in bovine milk.
Journal of Dairy Science, 90(10), 4730-4739. https://doi.org/10.3168/
jds.2007-0225
Nudda, A., McGuire, M.A., Battacone, G., & Pulina, G. (2005). Seasonal variation
in conjugated linoleic acid and vaccenic acid in milk fat of sheep and its
transfer to cheeses and ricotta. Journal of Dairy Science, 88(4), 1311-
1319. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)72797-1
Renna, M., Lussiana, C., Cornale, P., Fortina, R., & Mimosi, A. (2012). Changes in
goat milk fatty acids during abrupt transition from indoor to pasture diet.
Small Ruminant Research, 108(1-3), 12-21. https://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921448812002490
Shingeld, K., Ahvenjärvi, S., Toivonen, V., Ärölä, A., Nurmela, K.V.V., Huhtanen,
P., & Griinari, J. (2003). Eect of dietary sh oil on biohydrogenation of
fatty acids and milk fatty acid content in cows. Animal Science, 77(1),
165-179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1357729800053765
Talpur, F.N., Bhanger, M.I., Khooharo, A. A., & Memon, G.Z. (2008). Seasonal
variation in fatty acid composition of milk from ruminants reared under
the traditional feeding system of Sindh Pakistan. Livestock Science,
118(1-2), 166-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2008.04.008
TIBCO Software Inc. (2018). Statistica (data analysis software system), version
13. http://tibco.com.
Vlaeminck, B., Fievez, V., Tamminga, S., Dewhurst, R.J., Van Vuuren, A., De
Brabander, D., & Demeyer, D. (2006). Milk odd and branched-chain
fatty acids in relation to the rumen fermentation pattern. Journal of
Dairy Science, 89(10), 3954-3964. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-
0302(06)72437-7
Wol, R.L., Bayard, C.C. & Fabien, R.J. (1995). Evaluation of sequential methods
for the determination of butterfat fatty acid composition with emphasis on
trans 18:1 acid: Application to the study of seasonal variation in French
butters. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 72(12), 1471-
1483. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02577840
Yurchenko, S., Sats, A., Tatar, V., Kaart, T., Mootse, H., & Jõudu, I. (2018). Fatty
acid prole of milk from Saanen and Swedish Landrace goats. Food
Chemistry, 254, 326-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.02.041
