Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales Lukáš Stárek Czech University of Life Sciences Prague. Institute of Education and Counselling. Department of Pedagogy V lázních 3, 159 00 Praha 5 – Malá Chuchle, Czech Republic. E-mail: starekl@ivp.czu.cz; ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6068-215X Resumen. Este artículo se centra en un análisis comparativo de la educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual en diferentes sistemas educativos. El objetivo del estudio es identificar los principales enfoques de inclusión, evaluar su eficacia y comparar los factores clave que influyen en la implementación de estrategias inclusivas. El estudio utiliza un enfoque cualitativo basado en la síntesis de fuentes expertas existentes. Se realizó un análisis de contenido comparativo de los cuatro es- tudios seleccionados, complementado con una búsqueda bibliográfica más amplia, lo que permitió identificar las características comunes y distintivas de los enfoques inclusivos. El análisis se basó en la codificación temática de categorías clave como marcos legislativos, estrategias pedagógicas y apoyo al alumnado con dificultades de aprendizaje. Los resultados muestran que la educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual se ve influenciada no solo por la normativa legislativa, sino también por la disponibilidad de apoyo educativo especial, el enfoque del profesorado y el grado de cooperación entre centros educativos y familias. Los modelos eficaces de inclusión priorizan el apoyo individualizado, la formación sistemática del profesorado y la cooperación interdisciplinar. Dado el rápido desarrollo de los métodos pedagógi- cos y las herramientas tecnológicas, cabe suponer que la educación inclusiva seguirá cambiando y requerirá una adaptación e innovación constantes. El estudio contribuye a una comprensión más profunda de los factores que influyen en la educación inclusiva y ofrece recomendaciones para la práctica pedagógica, incluyendo la introducción de formas de apoyo más flexibles y una mejor formación docente. Los hallazgos pueden servir de base para futuras investigaciones sobre la eficacia de las estrategias inclusivas en diferentes contextos educativos. Palabras clave: educación inclusiva, discapacidad intelectual, estrategias pedagógicas, educación especial, legislación. Recibido: 25/07/2025 ~ Aceptado: 15/10/2025 INTERACCIÓN Y PERSPECTIVA Revista de Trabajo Social ISSN 2244-808X ~ Dep. Legal pp 201002Z43506 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17642297 Vol. 16 (1): 227 - 242 pp, 2026

228 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 Inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities: a look at current approaches and challenges Abstract. is article focuses on a comparative analysis of inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities in different educational systems. e aim of the study is to identify the main approaches to inclusion, evaluate their effectiveness and compare the key factors influencing the implementation of inclusive strategies. e study uses a qualitative approach based on the synthesis of existing expert sources. A comparative content analysis of the four selected studies was conducted, comple- mented by a broader literature search, which enabled the identification of common and distinct features of inclusive approaches. e analysis was conducted based on thematic coding of key categories such as legislative frameworks, pedagogical strate- gies and support for pupils with learning disabilities. e results show that inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities is influenced not only by legislative regulations, but also by the availability of special educational support, the approach of teachers and the degree of cooperation between schools and families. Effective models of inclusion emphasise individualised support, systematic teacher training and inter- disciplinary cooperation. Given the rapid development of pedagogical methods and technological tools, it can be assumed that inclusive education will continue to change and require constant adaptation and innovation. e study contributes to a deeper un- derstanding of the factors influencing inclusive education and offers recommendations for pedagogical practice, including the introduction of more flexible forms of support and improved teacher training. e findings can serve as a basis for future research on the effectiveness of inclusive strategies in different educational contexts. Keywords: inclusive education, intellectual disability, pedagogical strategies, special education, legislation. INTRODUCTION e educational policy of the Czech Republic aims at the development of an educational system in which education is at the forefront of society and individuals. Education is considered to be an important value that individuals develop throughout their lives. Quality education should be accessible to everyone so as to give everyone an equal chance in life. At every level of education, it is important that students know what is expected of them and what they can expect. Education is based on the current state of human knowledge, encourages creativity and meets the needs of society. People accumulate knowledge throughout their lives. His interest in education is supported by quality teaching staff. ey should be well-prepared for their profession and should be able to guide and motivate pupils to achieve the maximum in the set objectives, taking into account the social tendencies related to inclusive education. Inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities is a key area of contemporary pedagogy that reflects broader societal changes in attitudes towards people with special educa- tional needs. With increasing efforts to ensure equal opportunities and remove barriers, legislative frameworks, pedagogical strategies and support mechanisms are being developed in many countries

Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales 229 Vol. 16(1) enero - abril 2026/ 227 - 242 around the world to enable the effective inclusion of pupils with intellectual disabilities in main- stream education. Although the concept of inclusive education is based on the idea of equality and social justice, its implementation faces a number of challenges. ese include not only institutional and legis- lative conditions, but also the practical application of appropriate teaching methods, the role of teachers and teaching assistants, and the availability of the necessary resources and support. While in some countries there is a long tradition of inclusive education, in others this approach is still taking shape and faces significant obstacles. e aim of this article is to identify the key factors influencing inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities through a comparative analysis of various studies. In particular, we will focus on the legislative framework, pedagogical strategies used, barriers to the implementation of inclusive policies and the impact on teaching staff. e analysis will offer a synthesis of findings from different countries and education systems in order to formulate recommendations for further developments in this field. e following chapters will first introduce the research methodology, which describes the approach to comparative analysis of expert studies. Next, the individual aspects of inclusive educa- tion will be discussed, paying particular attention not only to the differences between the different approaches, but also to their commonalities and potential applications in practice. e final part of the paper will then summarise the main findings and offer recommendations for improving inclu- sive practice in the field of education for people with intellectual disabilities. METHODOLOGY is article is based on a comparative analysis of the literature on inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities. e chosen methodology is based on a synthesis and critical evaluation of relevant studies that address the legislative framework, pedagogical strategies, barriers to inclusion and possible solutions. e aim of this analysis is to identify common and divergent aspects of different approaches to inclusion in different educational contexts, with an emphasis on the effectiveness of the measures introduced and their real impact on educational practice. Comparative analysis, also known as the comparative method, is a scientific approach based on the systematic comparison of two or more phenomena, entities or systems in order to identify their similarities and differences. is method is widely used in various scientific disciplines, includ- ing sociology, history, anthropology, economics, and education. In the context of literature work, comparative analysis allows for a deeper understanding of the topics under investigation through structured comparison of different sources and perspectives. (Schweisfurth et al., 2020) us, the use of comparative analysis in literature work requires careful planning and clear delineation of the aspects being compared in order to achieve valid and reliable results. Studies that met the following criteria were selected for the comparative analysis: • ematic relevance - the included studies deal with the issue of inclusive education of people with intellectual disabilities, focusing on legislative aspects, pedagogical strategies, ba- rriers and challenges of inclusion or the role of teaching staff.

230 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 • Methodological credibility - studies were selected with regard to their scientific validity, i.e. whether they are published in peer-reviewed journals or are part of academic research projects. • International perspective - taking into account studies from different education systems allows for a broader view of inclusive education and its different implementation in practice. • Practical applicability - articles that contain empirical data, case studies or specific interven- tion strategies were prioritized to offer not only theoretical but also practical insights. • e following aspects were key in the analysis: • Legislative framework - how countries approach inclusion in terms of legislation and what mechanisms support the inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities in mainstream edu- cation. • Applied pedagogical methods - what strategies and approaches are used in inclusive educa- tion and what is their effectiveness. • Challenges to inclusion - what barriers to effective inclusion and what strategies are used to overcome them. • Impact on teaching staff - how inclusive education affects teachers and teaching assistants, their professional competences and working conditions. • A comparative approach was used as the main method of analysis as it allows for the iden- tification of differences and commonalities in inclusive educational approaches across studies. e following were studied as part of the analysis: • Conclusions from peer-reviewed articles - their key ideas were categorized and compared. • Statistical data - where studies have been supplemented by quantitative research, this data has been used to support conclusions. • Case studies - where articles contained descriptions of specific inclusive programmes, their strengths and weaknesses were analysed. • Comparative tables and thematic analysis - were created to visualize the differences between the different approaches and to identify trends and patterns in inclusive education. Although the analysis is based on a wide range of expert studies, there are limitations. One of these is the availability of primary empirical data that would allow for deeper comparisons of the effectiveness of inclusive strategies in specific school settings. Another limitation is the variability of education systems in different countries, which may affect the transferability of some conclusions. e results of this paper should therefore be seen as an indicative overview of trends and challenges in inclusive education that need to be further investigated and adapted to the specific conditions of individual education systems. RESULTS Legislative and institutional framework Inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities is significantly influenced by the legislative and institutional framework that defines the rights of pupils with special educational

Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales 231 Vol. 16(1) enero - abril 2026/ 227 - 242 needs and sets out the obligations of school institutions and state institutions. is framework varies from country to country depending on the historical development of education systems, the degree of support for inclusive education and the legislative measures that determine the conditions for the integration of pupils with intellectual disabilities into mainstream education. In addition to national legislative arrangements, international agreements, conventions and guidelines that set standards for inclusive education policy at a global level play an important role. International organisations such as the United Nations, UNESCO and the European Union have long promoted inclusive education as a key principle in school policy. Among the most im- portant documents are the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD, 2006), which establishes the right to inclusive education without discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunities. Article 24 of this convention obliges signatory states to ensure inclusive education systems at all levels. Another important document is the Salamanca Declaration (1994), adopted at a UNESCO conference, which for the first time systematically defined the principles of inclusion and recom- mended that countries adapt their education systems to the needs of pupils with disabilities. e European Union also promotes inclusive education through directives and strategic documents such as the European Disability Strategy 2021-2030, which emphasises the need to strengthen in- clusive approaches to education. At the national level, approaches to inclusion vary depending on the legal and institutional conditions in each country. In the Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Norway, Finland), for ex- ample, inclusive education is firmly enshrined in law and mainstream schools have an obligation to provide support for pupils with intellectual disabilities without segregating them. In contrast, in some Central European countries, including the Czech Republic, inclusion has undergone major reforms in recent years, but there is still a duality between mainstream and special schools. e right to education is a fundamental human right. After 1990, the structure of the school system in the Czech Republic was created as part of the equalization of educational opportunities. It guarantees the right of every individual to an education according to his or her abilities and skills. ese rights are also regulated in the current version of Education Act No. 82/2015 Coll. on pre-school, primary, secondary, higher vocational and other education. (amendment to Act No. 561/2004 Coll.) is Act ensures education according to the needs of each individual, equal access to education for all without discrimination, free education and the possibility of lifelong learning for individuals. At the same time, it defines and regulates the education system for pupils with special educational needs, which include pupils with mental disabilities. e aim of the legisla- tive changes was to comprehensively change the environment for inclusive education in primary schools. e education of children, pupils and students can be carried out with the help of support measures. e law defines ... „supportive measures means necessary adjustments in education and school services appropriate to the health condition, cultural background or other living conditions of the child, pupil or student. Children, pupils and students with special educational needs have the right to the provision of support measures free of charge by the school and educational estab- lishment.“ (§16, Act No. 82/2015 Coll.) Pupils with special educational needs are entitled under the above-mentioned law to the pro- vision of support measures, which consist of the provision of counselling assistance, adaptation of the organisation, aids, workplace, the use of compensatory aids, education according to an indi-

232 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 vidual plan, the use of a teaching assistant or other teaching staff, etc. e regulation of the rules for the education of children, pupils and students with special educational needs and the education of pupils referred to in Article 16(9) of the Education Act is dealt with in detail in Decree No. 27/2016 Coll. is Decree characterises the possibilities of support measures that lead to the cor- rection of a pupil‘s learning and educational problems due to a medical condition and also deals with an individual education plan for pupils with special educational needs. Education is also one of the basic components of an individual‘s integration into society. e promotion of integration and equal opportunities within education is also evident in the Czech Republic‘s accession to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (which was done in 2009), which takes disability as a concept of interaction and seeks to combat discrimination and, conversely, to promote equal opportunities. e purpose of this treaty is to protect and ensure the recognition of human rights for people with disabilities , including people with intellectual disabilities. Furthermore, by signing the Convention, the Czech Republic has committed itself to eliminate prejudices and stereotypes against people with disabilities in society. It thus guarantees, among other things, to create conditions for equal opportunities in education, the development of talents, creativity or potential and the promotion of an inclusive approach in education. It also guarantees to assist in the acquisition of practical and theoretical knowledge according to the abili- ties and skills of each individual and to provide an appropriate environment, form of education or access to all levels of education (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities). An important standard is the National Curriculum, which presents framework curricula that set the direction and content of teaching for different types of educational institutions and for dif- ferent levels of education. e Framework Curricula are regulated by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. e Framework Curriculum is, among other things, set out for pre-school education and regulates the curriculum and content of teaching in kindergar- tens or special schools. ere is also a framework curriculum for primary education regulating the education of pupils with mild mental disabilities, under which the educational process is adapted according to the physical and psychological capabilities of the pupils. ere is also a framework cur- riculum for special primary schools and a framework curriculum for vocational education. ese programmes provide the basic curricula on which individual schools subsequently base the prepa- ration and implementation of teaching, including schools for pupils with intellectual disabilities (Team of authors, Framework curriculum for primary education, 2017). e framework curricula are followed by school curricula, which are developed by each school itself, based on the framework curriculum designed for the type of education in that type of es- tablishment. If necessary, an individual education plan is then developed for pupils, which is par- ticularly suitable for individually integrated pupils, pupils with intellectual disabilities, but also for group-integrated pupils or pupils in special school settings. It is based on the school curriculum and is drawn up according to the information from the results of psychological and special education examinations. e plan outlines the content and timing of the lessons to match the pupils‘ abilities and skills. It also lists all the support measures to be used in the pupil‘s learning. is plan is usu- ally drawn up before the pupil starts school, but it may change as necessary during the school year. Support measures are enshrined in Czech legislation, namely Act No.82/2015 Coll., which amends Act No.561/2004 Coll., on pre-school, primary, secondary, higher vocational and other education, and Decree No.27/2016 Coll., on the education of pupils with special educational

Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales 233 Vol. 16(1) enero - abril 2026/ 227 - 242 needs and gifted pupils. Support measures consist of counselling assistance from the school and the school counselling centre. On the basis of their recommendations, adjustments are made to the organisation of the content, assessment, forms and methods of education and school services, including the provision of teaching of special education subjects and including the extension of the length of secondary or higher vocational education by up to two years. Furthermore, the conditions for admission to and completion of education shall be amended. e use of compensatory aids, special textbooks and special teaching aids, the use of communication systems for deaf and deaf- blind persons, and the expected learning outcomes within the limits set by the framework educa- tion programmes and accredited education programmes will be defined. ey also provide for the possibility of education in accordance with the IVP or the use of an assistant or other pedagogical worker (interpreter, transcriber, etc.). (Act No. 82/2015 Coll.). e severity of individual disabilities requires varying degrees of support to ensure that the resulting effect is as acceptable to the pupil as possible, while achieving the best possible results within the limits of what is possible. Support measures are divided into five levels according to organisational, pedagogical and financial requirements. Support measures can be combined. Sup- port measures of the higher levels are used only in cases where the support measures of the lower levels are insufficient to meet the pupil‘s learning potential. Inclusion in support measures shall be determined by the implementing regulation. Support measures of the first level are applied by the school without a recommendation from the counselling centre; support measures of the second to fifth level can only be applied with a recommendation from the counselling centre. e prior writ- ten informed consent of the adult pupil or legal guardian is always a condition for the provision of second to fifth level support measures. If, on the basis of the recommendation of the counselling centre, it is no longer necessary to provide a second to fifth level support measure, the school shall cease to provide it after consultation with the pupil or legal representative. In the United States, inclusive education is regulated by the Individuals with Disabilities Edu- cation Act (IDEA, 1990), which ensures the right to a free and accessible education for all children with disabilities. is law requires schools to provide what are called Individual Education Plans (IEPs), which set out specific supports for each student with special needs. A comparison of international and national approaches shows that while some countries have a long tradition of inclusive education and legislation is comprehensively developed, in other coun- tries there are still institutional barriers that prevent the full implementation of inclusion. In the process of implementing inclusive education, both government institutions, which are responsible for the development and implementation of education policy, and NGOs, which provide support to schools, teachers and families of children with intellectual disabilities, play a key role. Government organisations, such as ministries of education, inspection bodies or research in- stitutes, are tasked with creating the legislative framework and ensuring compliance. Many coun- tries have special agencies for inclusive education that coordinate the implementation of inclusive measures in school practice. In the Czech Republic, for example, this role is partly fulfilled by the National Pedagogical Institute of the Czech Republic, which is involved in training teachers and pro- viding methodological support.

234 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 NGOs play an important role in advocacy, family support and the provision of specialist ser- vices. Many organisations focus on raising awareness of inclusive education and supporting schools in implementing inclusive methods. Some of the most prominent organisations working in this area include: • European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, which coordinates research and methodological support in the field of inclusive education in Europe. • Inclusion International, a global network of organisations promoting the rights of people with intellectual disabilities. • Czech Professional Society for Inclusive Education (ČOSIV), which focuses on improving the conditions for inclusion in Czech schools. ese organisations not only provide methodological materials and expert advice, but also often play a key role in monitoring compliance with inclusive policies and promoting changes in legislation. In some countries, particularly in Scandinavia and Western Europe, there is close cooperation between governmental and non-governmental organisations, which enables more effective imple- mentation of inclusive measures. In Sweden, for example, NGOs are involved in the development of education policies and help schools to apply inclusive methods. In contrast, in countries with less developed inclusive policies, NGOs face many obstacles, including lack of financial support and limited opportunities to influence public education policy. In these cases, inclusion is often implemented as an isolated initiative of individual schools rather than as a systematic part of the national education system. e legislative and institutional framework plays a crucial role in the process of inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities. A comparison of different approaches shows that successful implementation of inclusion depends not only on the existence of appropriate leg- islation, but also on good institutional support and cooperation between governmental and non- governmental actors. International experience suggests that the most effective inclusive education occurs where legislation is underpinned by concrete support mechanisms and where there is coor- dinated cooperation between the state, schools and civil society. Pedagogical strategies Inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities emphasizes the use of innovative pedagogical strategies that support the effective participation of students in the educational process. Key strategies include differentiated instruction and individual education plans, which allow con- tent, methods and assessment to be adapted to the abilities and needs of individual pupils. Another important area is the application of assistive technologies to facilitate communication, cognitive development and independence of pupils with intellectual disabilities. ese strategies are based on modern approaches to inclusive pedagogy and reflect the legislative and institutional framework of inclusion. Differentiated instruction is a pedagogical strategy that respects individual differences among students and adapts the content, learning process and assessment outcomes to them. In the educa- tion of pupils with intellectual disabilities, it is essential to ensure that teaching methods are varied to match their cognitive abilities, learning pace and preferred learning styles. As stated by Inclusion

Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales 235 Vol. 16(1) enero - abril 2026/ 227 - 242 authors, differentiated instruction allows for an individualized approach, which leads to higher educational effectiveness and also promotes active participation of students in learning. (Adamus, 2019; Bazalová, 2023; Hájková & Strnadová, 2010; Pivarč, 2017; Slowík, 2022) e access to education is basic human right and it cannot be taken from anyone nor the pupils with ay disabilities. It is important to acknowledge the accessibility and inclusivity, differ- entiation, and individualization of education. Plus, the activisation of pupils is crucial throughout educational process. Although, we can support Daňek and Klugerová (2023) thought who recog- nise inclusive education as tool of social exclusion. A key tool in differentiated instruction is the individual education plan, which is the basic document that sets out the specific educational goals, methods and strategies for a particular stu- dent. e Individual Education Plan is developed in collaboration between teachers, special educa- tors, psychologists and the pupil‘s family, reflecting the pupil‘s current needs and capabilities. In the Czech education system, the individual education plan is a key element of inclusive practice, which enables the content of teaching, support and assessment to be tailored to the pupil‘s individual ca- pabilities. (Bendová & Zikl, 2012; Goupil et al., 2022; Kaleja et al., 2014; Valenta & Müller, 2021) Cooperative learning, which replaces traditional competitiveness, plays a crucial role in strength- ening social bonds among students and developing their collaborative skills. (Bačová, 2024) Various pedagogical methods are used in the development of the individual education plan, including: • Structured learning that helps students with intellectual disabilities better navigate the lear- ning process through visual diagrams and clearly defined steps. • Multisensory learning that engages the different senses and promotes more effective memo- rization and understanding of the material. • Cooperative learning that promotes social interaction among students and the develop- ment of their communication skills. e effectiveness of the Individual Education Plan depends on regular assessment and adjust- ment of targets in line with the pupil‘s progress. As authors (Snider et al., 2020; ompson et al., 2018; Valenta et al., 2015) point out, the flexibility of the Individual Education Plan is essential for successful inclusion and supporting the individual needs of pupils with learning disabilities. Technological advances have brought a wide range of assistive technologies that allow for more effective inclusion of students with intellectual disabilities in the educational process. Ac- cording to the authors (Cvetković, 2021; Gajzlerová, 2015; Kopecký, 2021; Mølster & Nes, 2018; Němejc et al., 2019; Ramos & Andrade, 2014; Stárek & Klugerová, 2025), modern technologies can significantly contribute to inclusive education by compensating for some of the cognitive and communication barriers faced by pupils with intellectual disabilities. Assistive technologies can be divided into several key categories: • Communication Technology - Alternative and Augmentative Communication helps stu- dents with communication disabilities express their needs and engage in learning. Examples include special communication applications such as Proloquo2Go or the use of picture ex- change symbols (PECS). (Maier & Klugerova, 2024).

236 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 • Visual support and structured learning - e use of visual aids such as pictograms, diagrams or interactive whiteboards facilitates orientation in the learning process and promotes cogni- tive understanding. Terfloth and Bauersfeld (2019), as well as Zounek et al. (2021), state that visual supports are a key element in teaching students with intellectual disabilities, as they simplify complex concepts and contribute to improved student independence. • Digital learning apps - Personalised apps and online platforms allow learners to learn at their own pace and tailor learning content to their abilities. For example, the ABC Maestro app helps children with intellectual disabilities develop reading and writing skills through interactive tasks. (Ramos & Andrade, 2014; Terfloth Cesak, 2016; Zounek et al., 2021). • Virtual and Augmented Reality - Modern inclusive pedagogy is beginning to use elements of virtual reality and augmented reality to simulate real-life situations and promote learning through experiential pedagogy. e European Commission (Montoya-Rodríguez et al., 2022; Nabors et al., 2020) highlight the growing importance of these technologies in the education of pupils with special educational needs, as they help with the practice of normal daily activi- ties and enhance the cognitive functions of pupils. Assistive technologies have the potential to overcome some of the barriers to inclusive educa- tion, but their successful implementation depends on sufficient training of teachers and the avail- ability of the necessary technical and financial resources. According to Act No. 561/2004 Coll., the Czech education system is obliged to provide support to pupils with special educational needs, which includes access to modern technologies (Kopecký, 2021; Mølster & Nes, 2018; Nabors et al., 2020). e use of pedagogical strategies such as differentiated instruction, individual education plans and assistive technology contribute significantly to the effective inclusion of pupils with intellectual disabilities into the mainstream education system. Although these strategies represent significant progress in inclusive education, there are still challenges associated with their implementation. Challenges of inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities Inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities is a complex process that places high demands not only on the school system, but also on teachers, students and their families. De- spite the positive trends in inclusive education, there are a number of challenges that may threaten its effective implementation. e main obstacles include barriers to inclusion and problems with funding and support for educators. (Adamus, 2019; Bazalova, 2023; Slowík, 2022; Stárek, 2022) One of the key challenges in the field of inclusive education is the persistence of barriers, which can be structural, institutional and individual. Negative attitudes of society and educators - prejudices and stereotypes against persons with mental disabilities persist not only in society, but also among educators and parents of classmates. ere is often a belief that pupils with intellectual disabilities slow down learning or require a dis- proportionate amount of time and resources. ese attitudes can lead to passive or active resistance to inclusion (Goupil et al., 2022; Kopecký et al., 2021). Insufficient teacher training - although faculties of education try to prepare future teachers to work with heterogeneous classrooms, in practice there is often a lack of sufficient training for working with pupils with intellectual disabilities. Many teachers do not have sufficient knowledge

Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales 237 Vol. 16(1) enero - abril 2026/ 227 - 242 of special education methods or the skills needed for individualised teaching (Bendová & Zikl, 2012; Tláskalová, 2021). Inadequate environment and material barriers - the physical environment of schools is not always adapted to the needs of pupils with intellectual disabilities. e lack of adapted teaching aids, special aids and technological tools further complicates effective education. In addition, many schools are not equipped with adequate facilities for individual or group work with special educa- tors (Valenta & Müller, 2021). Unclear legislative support - although inclusive education is enshrined in the legislative frame- works of many countries, the implementation of legal provisions is confronted with ambiguities and different interpretations. e rules for funding, the conditions for granting support measures or the role of teaching assistants are not always uniform (Kaleja et al., 2014). Inclusive education requires adequate funding and staffing, which is another significant chal- lenge. Insufficient funding has a negative impact in several areas: • Lack of funding for schools - many schools are struggling with limited budgets that are in- sufficient to meet the needs of inclusive education. e cost of special aids, compensatory aids, teaching assistants or other professionals (special educators, psychologists, speech therapists) is often underfunded. • Low attractiveness of the teaching profession - the work of teachers in inclusive education is demanding and requires a high level of expertise, but the remuneration of teachers and other support staff does not reflect their demanding work. As a result, many teachers avoid working in inclusive classrooms, leading to overload and burnout for those who choose to remain in the system. • Insufficient funding for teaching assistants - teaching assistants play a key role in inclusive education, but their working conditions are not always optimal. Low salaries, limited working hours and uncertainty about the long-term funding of the position lead to high assistant tur- nover and difficulties in ensuring continuity of support for pupils with intellectual disabilities. • Limited opportunities for further training of teachers - quality inclusion requires that tea- chers have access to further training in special education, inclusive methods and working with pupils with different specific needs. Unfortunately, the offer of these courses is often limited, costly or time prohibitive for mainstream educators (Cvetković, 2021; Gajzler, 2015; Mølster & Nes, 2018; Nabors et al., 2020; Terfloth & Bauersfeld, 2019). Inclusive education has a significant impact on the working conditions of teachers and teach- ing assistants. Although inclusion brings professional enrichment and new pedagogical challenges, it is also associated with increased stress and the need for continuous learning. Teachers and teaching assistants working in inclusive education face a high psychological burden. Teaching heterogeneous classes requires constant attention, flexibility and the ability to respond to the individual needs of pupils. Lack of support, high administrative burdens and un- clear methodological guidance can lead to frustration, fatigue and, in extreme cases, burnout. Ever- changing approaches to inclusive education require educators to regularly expand their knowledge and skills. Quality inclusive education cannot do without specialised courses on working with pupils with learning disabilities, the use of assistive technology or effective inclusive teaching strat-

238 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 egies. Ensuring the availability of these training programs is crucial to the sustainability of an in- clusive education model. (Arias et al., 2019; Jovanović et al., 2019; Martin et al., 2019; Stárek & Klugerová, 2024) Successful implementation of inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities faces many barriers and challenges that need to be systematically addressed. Changing attitudes, strengthening teacher training, removing institutional and material barriers and ensuring adequate funding are key steps for effective inclusion. Only a comprehensive approach can lead to an educa- tion system that is truly inclusive and accessible to all pupils, regardless of their individual needs. DISCUSSION Due to the fact that individuals with intellectual disabilities are now required to attend com- pulsory school and have the opportunity to be educated, they are making significant progress in their mental and physical development. Depending on the mental level they reach, they are able to learn the trivium, developing their abilities and skills, thus promoting independent function- ing and self-sufficiency. ey also become better oriented in society. Some of them subsequently join the workforce and are part of the labour system in the Czech Republic. Education of people with intellectual disabilities leads to their personal development, self-sufficiency, independence in decision-making, and development of communication skills. Currently, there are several ways in which people with intellectual disabilities can be educated in the Czech Republic. e advantage of individual integration into mainstream schools is the di- rect entry of the individual with a learning disability into the community of his or her peers. At the same time, pupils without disabilities who have a pupil with a learning disability in their group get used to the differences between them as normal, so an inclusive approach is seen. Currently, the Czech education system is trying to integrate pupils with disabilities into main- stream schools. However, successful integration requires preparation of all participants. However, not everyone is enthusiastic about inclusive education. ere are parents who prefer to educate their child with a disability in a particular primary school. ey believe that their child receives all possible sup- port and development of all personality components there. erefore, they do not follow the inclusive trend in primary schools. Inclusive education is stated in the law to ensure that all children with dis- abilities have the best possible opportunity for education and a successful life in society. By respecting all the differences of all students, inclusive education can be considered as a type of successful educa- tion that eliminates discrimination and enriches the quality of life of all participants. An analysis of expert sources on inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities reveals a wide range of approaches whose effectiveness depends on the context of their application. A common feature of all the studies analysed is the consensus that inclusive education benefits not only pupils with intellectual disabilities but also their able-bodied classmates and teachers. (Nabors et al., 2020; Slowík, 2022; Terfloth & Bauersfeld, 2019) However, the studies also point to per- sistent challenges and varying success rates in implementing different strategies (Adamus, 2019; Pivarč, 2017; Stárek 2022). One of the key factors influencing the effectiveness of inclusion is teacher preparedness. As studies show, teachers often struggle with inadequate training and support, which can lead to negative attitudes towards inclusion. (Cvetković, 2021; Snider et al., 2020; Stárek & Klugerová,

Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales 239 Vol. 16(1) enero - abril 2026/ 227 - 242 2025) In contrast, studies that have examined effective school systems emphasize the importance of continuous professional development for teachers and the availability of support services. (Mølster & Nes, 2018; Němejc et al, 2019; Ramos & Andrade, 2014) Schools that have multidisciplinary collaboration between teachers, teaching assistants and special educators have been shown to have better inclusion outcomes (Kaleja et al., 2014; Terfloth & Cesak, 2016; Zounek et al., 2021). Another topic discussed is the role of an individualised approach. Sources agree that successful inclusion depends on curriculum flexibility, differentiation of instruction, and the use of assistive technology. (Bazalova, 2023; Snider et al, 2020) However, there are differences in the degree of adaptation, with some studies emphasizing maximum inclusion of students in mainstream instruc- tion with support, while others recommend maintaining partially segregated programs to ensure optimal learning conditions (Hájková & Strnadová, 2010; Terfloth & Bauersfeld, 2019). Another important area of discussion is the social aspect of inclusion. Although most studies confirm the positive impact of inclusion on social interactions (Snider et al., 2020; Zounek et al., 2021), some research suggests that without targeted intervention, students with intellectual disabil- ities may experience social isolation. (Bendová & Zikl, 2012; Goupil et al, 2022; Valenta & Müller, 2021) Effective strategies include peer collaboration, mentoring programs, and teacher support in building an inclusive classroom climate (Mølster & Nes, 2018; Terfloth & Bauersfeld, 2019). In terms of the future development of inclusive education, it can be expected that emphasis will be placed on the wider implementation of digital technologies, the development of methods supporting differentiation of teaching and deeper cooperation between schools and families. How- ever, the challenge remains to fund these measures and to ensure sufficient professional support for all stakeholders. (Bendová & Zikl, 2012; Kaleja et al., 2014; Snider et al., 2020; Stárek, 2022) Overall, inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities is a complex area in which pedagogical, social and organisational factors are mixed. Although there are some differences in ap- proach and emphasis on specific strategies among expert sources, there is a general consensus that inclusion brings a range of benefits, but its effectiveness is contingent on good teacher preparation, sufficient support and the targeted development of an inclusive culture in the school environment (Bazalova, 2023; Mølster & Nes, 2018; Nabors et al., 2020; Montoya-Rodríguez et al., 2022). CONCLUSION is article has provided a detailed overview of inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities, focusing on the key challenges, benefits and strategies for its effective implementation. An analysis of expert sources revealed that inclusive education is a complex process requiring the coordinated efforts of educators, assistants, parents and the wider community. In line with the formulated aim of the thesis, several key aspects influencing the success of inclusion were identified. First of all, teacher preparedness has been shown to play a crucial role in the effectiveness of an inclusive approach, with not only professional training but also continuous professional development and access to support mechanisms being key factors. It has also been confirmed that an individualised approach to the education of pupils with intellectual disabilities is essential for their optimal development and integration into the school environment. e social as- pects of inclusion were identified as another key area, highlighting that targeted support for interac- tions between pupils and the building of an inclusive climate is necessary to achieve positive effects.

240 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 e paper also highlighted some of the persistent problems and challenges associated with inclusive education. e main barriers include insufficient funding, lack of sufficient numbers of trained teachers and support for teaching assistants. Teacher stress and professional burnout were identified as important factors affecting the success of the inclusive approach, confirming the need to implement measures aimed at preventing them. In terms of the future development of inclusive education, several areas appear to be key. e first is the systematic improvement of training programmes for teachers and the strengthening of their digital competences, which can facilitate the implementation of inclusive methods. It is also necessary to develop cooperation between educational institutions, special educators and families in order to better respond to the individual needs of pupils. At the same time, it appears that a greater emphasis on research into the effectiveness of different inclusive strategies can help to opti- mise and adapt them to the specific conditions of individual education systems. is article has thus provided a comprehensive view of inclusive education for people with intellectual disabilities and at the same time opened up space for further research. In the future, it would be useful to analyse individual inclusion strategies in different educational contexts in more detail and to explore their long-term impact on pupils, educators and wider society. Given the rapid development of pedagogical methods and technological tools, it can be assumed that inclusive edu- cation will continue to change and require constant adaptation and innovation. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES • Adamus, P. (2019). Educating students with intellectual disabilities. University of Ostrava. • Arias, W. L., Huamani, J., & Ceballos, K. D. (2019). Burnout syn-drome in Schoolteachers and University Professors: A psycho-metricand comparative anaylys from Arequipa City. Pro- pósitos y Representaciones, 7(3), 72- 110. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2019.v7n3.390 • Bačová, V. (2024). Developing a safe learning environment in primary-level innovative schools in the Czech Republic. Education 3-13 International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 1-11. doi: 10.1080/03004279.2024.2410482 • Bazalová, B. (2023). Psychopediatry. Grada. • Bendová, P., & Zikl, P. (2012). A child with intellectual disabilities in school. Grada. • Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (2006). United Nations Treaty Collection. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on- the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html • Cvetković, D. (2021). Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education. IntechOpen. • Czech Professional Society for Inclusive Education (ČOSIV). (n.d.). Supporting Inclusive Edu- cation in the Czech Republic. Retrieved from https://www.cosiv.cz/ • Daněk, A., & Klugerová, J. (2023). Inclusive education as an instrument for preventing social exclusion. ALTA: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 13(2), 142-144. https://doi. org/10.33543/j.1302.142144 • European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (n.d.). Inclusive Education in Europe: Key Policy Messages. Retrieved from https://www.european-agency.org/ • European Commission. (2021). Union of Equality: Strategy for the Rights of Persons with Disa- bilities 2021-2030. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1484

Educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad intelectual: una mirada a los enfoques y desafíos actuales 241 Vol. 16(1) enero - abril 2026/ 227 - 242 • Gajzlerová, L. (2015). Multimedia technologies and their use by pupils with special educatio- nal needs in an inclusive school environment. Masaryk University. • Goupil, G., Tassé, J. M., Garcin, N., & Doré, C. (2002). Parent and teacher perceptions of in- dividualized transition planning. British Journal of Special Education, 29(3), 127-135. https:// doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.00255 • Hájková, V., & Strnadová, I. (2010). Inclusive education. Grada. • Inclusion International. (n.d.). Advocacy for Inclusive Education. Retrieved from https://inclu- sion-international.org/ • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (1990). United States Department of Edu- cation. Retrieved from https://sites.ed.gov/idea/ • Jovanović, V., Karić, J., Mihajlović, G., Džamonja-Ignjatović, T., & Hinić, D. (2019). Work- related burnout syndrome in special education teachers working with children with develop- mental disorders - possible correlations with some socio-demographic aspects and assertive- ness. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 34(5), 692-701. https://doi.org/10.1080/0 8856257.2019.1572092 • Kaleja, M. et al. (2014). Inclusive dimensions of primary and secondary education in special education. University of Ostrava. • Kopecký, K., Szotkowski, R., Kubala, L., Krejčí, V., & Havelka, M. (2021). Modern tech- nologies in teaching: (on modern technologies in teaching with educators for educators). Palacký University in Olomouc. • Law number 561/2004 collection., law about preschool, primary, high school, higher speci- fied and other education (school act). Collection of Laws of the Czech Republic. • Law number 82/2015 collection., Law, changing the law number 561/2004 collection, about preschool, primary, high school, higher specified and other education (school act). Collection of Laws of the Czech Republic. • Maier, O., & Klugerova, J. (2024). Civic Competences of Pupils with Hearing Impairment with Emphasis on Financial Literacy. Cadernos De Educação Tecnologia E Sociedade, 17(se5), 23-32. https://doi.org/10.14571/brajets.v17.nse5.23-32 • Martin, A. J., Strnadová, I., Němec, Z., Hájková, V., & Květoňová, L. (2019). Teacher as- sistants working with students with disabilities: the role of adaptability in enhancing their workplace wellbeing. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 25(5), 565-587. https://doi. org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1563646 • Mølster, T., & Nes, K. (2018). To What Extent Does Information and Communication Tech- nology Support Inclusion in Education of Students with Learning Difficulties? Universal Jour- nal of Educational Research, 6, 598-612. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2018.060403 • Montoya-Rodríguez, M. M., de Souza Franco, V., Tomás Llerena, C., Molina Cobos, F. J., Pizzarossa, S., García, A. C., & Martínez-Valderrey, V. (2022). Virtual reality and aug- mented reality as strategies for teaching social skills to individuals with intellectual disabil- ity: A systematic review. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 27(4), 1062-1084. https://doi. org/10.1177/17446295221089147 • Nabors, L., Monnin, J., & Jimenez, S. (2020). A Scoping Review of Studies on Virtual Real- ity for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities. Adv Neurodev Disord 4, 344-356. https://doi. org/10.1007/s41252-020-00177-4 • National Pedagogical Institute of the Czech Republic. (n.d.). Methodological support for inclu- sive education. Retrieved from https://www.npi.cz/

242 Stárek Interacción y Perspectiva. Revista de Trabajo Social Vol. 16(1): 2026 • Němejc, K., Smékalová, L., & Kříž, E. (2019). A Reflection of the Quality of Education in the Use of Teaching Aids and the Importance of Lifelong Learning. Rural, Environmental Educa- tion Personality (REEP), 12, 94-103. doi: 10.22616/REEP.2019.012 • Pivarč, J. (2017). Knowledge about students’ preconceptions of intellectual disability in the context of the changing paradigm of contemporary education. Charles University. • Public notice number 27/2016 collection., Public notice about education of pupils with spe- cial education needs and talented pupils. Collection of Laws of the Czech Republic. • Ramos, S., & Andrade, A. (2014). ICT in Portuguese reference schools for the education of blind and partially sighted students. Education and Information Technologies, 21, 625-641. doi: 10.1007/ s10639-014-9344-6 • Schweisfurth, M., omas, M. A. M., & Smail, A. (2020). Revisiting comparative pedagogy: methodologies, themes and research communities since 2000. Compare: A Journal of Com- parative and International Education, 52(4), 560-580. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.20 20.1797475 • Slowík, J. (2022). Inclusive special pedagogy. Grada. • Snider, L. A., Talapatra, D., Miller, G. et al. (2020). Expanding Best Practices in Assessment for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. Contemp School Psychol 24, 429-444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-020-00294-w • Stárek, L. (2022). Inclusion as a Tool for Educational strategies in the Czech Republic Fo- cused On People With An Intellectual Disability. Pedagogika-Pedagogy, 94(2), 233-246. • Stárek, L., & Klugerová, J. (2024). An Exploratory Probe of Burnout Syndrome in the Special Education Profession. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 15(1), 27-38. https://doi. org/10.47750/pegegog.15.01.03 • Stárek, L., & Klugerová, J. (2025). e usage of information and communication technolo- gies in education of children and pupils with mental disability. Pedagogika-Pedagogy, 97(2), 250-267. doi: 10.53656/ped2025-2.07 • Team of authors, (2017). Framework educational program for basic education. Prague: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. • Terfloth, K., & Bauersfeld, S. (2019). Schüler mit geistiger Behinderung unterrichten Didaktik für Förder- und Regelschule. Ernst Reinhardt. • Terfloth, K., & Cesak, H. (2016). Schüler mit geistiger Behinderung im inklusiven Unterricht. Praxistipps für Lehrkräfte. Ernst Reinhardt. • ompson, T., Coleman, J. M., Riley, K. et al. (2018). Standardized Assessment Accom- modations for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities. Contemp School Psychol 22, 443-457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-018-0171-4 • Tláskalová, A. (2021). 123 tips for teaching that entertains children and teachers. Grada. • UNESCO. (1994). e Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Educa- tion. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000098427 • Valenta, M. et al. (2015). Catalogue of support measures: For pupils with learning support needs due to intellectual disability or cognitive impairment. Palacký University in Olomouc. • Valenta, M., & Müller, O. (2021). Psychopediatry: [theoretical foundations and methodology]. Parta. • Zounek, J., Juhaňák, L., Staudková, H., & Poláček, J. (2021). E-learning: learning (with) digi- tal technologies: a book with online support. Wolters Kluwer.