https://doi.org/10.52973/rcfcv-e363963 Revista Cientíﬁca, FCV-LUZ / Vol. XXXVI Recibido: 01/04/2026 Aceptado: 16/07/2026 Publicado: 13/08/2026 1 of 9 Hakima MESSAOUDENE¹ * , Meryem GUESSOUM² , Anes DADDA³ , Nouzha HELEILI¹ ,Mounir ADNANE⁴ , Ammar AYACHI⁵ Comparative analysis of antimicrobial resistance proﬁles of Campylobacter isolated from broiler chickens, cattle and sheep in Algeria Análisis comparativo de los perﬁles de resistencia a los antimicrobianos de cepas de Campylobacter aisladas de pollos de engorde, ganado vacuno y ovino en Argelia ¹ University of Batna 1, Institute of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, Laboratory of the Environment, Health and Animal Production, 05000. Algeria. ² Local Animal Resources Management Laboratory, National Veterinary School, BP161 El-Harrach, Algiers, Algeria, 0160. ³ Mohamed Cherif Mesaadia University, Animal Production, Biotechnology and Health Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Institute of Agronomic and Veterinary Sciences, Souk-Ahras, 04100. ¹ University of Batna 1, Health and Animal Production, Institute of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, Laboratory of the Environment, 05000. ⁴ Institute of Veterinary Sciences, University of Tiaret, Tiaret 14000. ⁵ University of Batna 2, Laboratory of Biotechnology, Bioactive Molecules and Pathophysiology Cellular, 05000. ⃰Corresponding author: hakima.messaoudene@univ-batna.dz, Among the pathogens associated with antimicrobial resistance, Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are the major etiological agents of gastrointestinal infections worldwide. This study aimed to explore the frequency of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter isolates among broiler chickens, cattle and sheep in Algeria, conducting a comparative analysis according to animal sources. A total of 138 isolates (96 of C. jejuni and 42 of C. coli) collected from meat samples of broiler chickens, cattle and sheep. The antimicrobial testing was conducted using disk diffusion methods. The findings revealed a high resistance in broiler chickens compared to other animal origins. Speciﬁcally, Campylobacter coli isolates from chickens demonstrated a complete resistance (100 %) to quinolones, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracycline, followed by Campylobacter jejuni , which showed resistance to quinolones, fluoroquinolones, and metronidazole (92 %), macrolides (75 %), and beta-lactams (69 %). Bovine C. coli isolates exhibited total resistance to quinolones, along with an increasing resistance to cephalosporins and macrolides. Similarly, ovine C. coli isolates demonstrated significant resistance to both beta-lactams and nitroimidazoles (70 %). Statistical analysis through variance testing, revealed high antibiotic resistance profiles in chickens compared to bovine and ovine isolates (P < 0.05). Bovine and ovine isolates exhibited elevated rate for quinolones and their resistance were less extensive than observed in broiler chickens. The results underscore the importance of considering the origin of isolates when evaluating resistance profiles in order to limit the spread of antimicrobial resistance under the one health approach. RESUMEN Palabras clave: Resistencia a los antimicrobianos; Campylobacter; pollos de engorde; ganado bovino; ovejas. Campylobacter son los principales agentes etiológicos de las infecciones gastrointestinales. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la frecuencia de cepas de Campylobacter resistentes a los antibióticos en pollos de engorde, ganado vacuno y ovino de Argelia, mediante un análisis comparativo por origen animal. Se recogieron un total de 138 cepas (96 de Campylobacter jejuni y 42 de Campylobacter coli). Las pruebas de sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos se realizaron mediante métodos de difusión en disco. Los resultados revelaron una mayor resistencia en los pollos de engorde que en los otros orígenes, con una mayor tasa de C. coli que de C. jejuni con respecto a las quinolonas, las fluoroquinolonas, los macrólidos, la tetraciclina (100 %) y los betalactámicos (72-77 %) en las cepas de C. coli, seguidas de un alto nivel de resistencia en C. jejuni frente a las quinolonas, las fluoroquinolonas y el metronidazol (92 %), macrólidos (75 %) y los betalactámicos (69 %). En el ganado vacuno y ovino también se obtuvieron tasas elevadas: las cepas de C. coli bovina mostraron una resistencia total a las quinolonas, un nivel creciente de resistencia a las cefalosporinas y los macrólidos (79 % y 59 %, respectivamente), y la C. coli ovina presentó una tasa elevada de resistencia a los betalactámicos y los nitroimidazoles (70 %). En el análisis de varianza, se observaron perfiles de alta resistencia en los pollos de engorde a la mayoría de los antibióticos, en comparación con las cepas bovinas y ovinas, con diferencias estadísticamente significativas (P < 0,05). Las cepas bovinas y ovinas mostraron tasas elevadas de resistencia a las quinolonas, aunque esta resistencia fue menos extensa que la observada en los pollos de engorde. Con el ﬁn de limitar la propagación de la resistencia a los antimicrobianos, es necesario adoptar un enfoque «Una sola salud». ABSTRACT Key words: Antimicrobial resistance; Campylobacter; broiler chickens; cattle; sheep.

2 of 9 Antimicrobial resistance proﬁles of campylobacter/MESSAOUDENE et al. INTRODUCTION Among global health problems, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a prominent example of the One Health approach [1, 2]. In food-producing animals, antimicrobial resistance can be transmitted to humans through foodborne pathways, as observed with bacteria such as Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Escherichia coli, as well as through environmental contamination and direct contact with animals [3, 4]. Of the pathogens associated with AMR, Campylobacter species, especially C. jejuni and C. coli, are leading contributors to gastrointestinal infections [5], and the most frequently reported as a zoonotic etiological agents affecting both humans and animals worldwide [6, 7]. Campylobacteriosis is primarily associated with the consumption and cross-contamination of food occurring in the preparation of slaughtered animal carcasses [8]. Key risk factors for infection include the consumption of undercooked or uncleaned meat, improper handling of raw foods, cross- contamination between raw and cooked foods, and direct contact with contaminated animals or animal carcasses [9]. Poultry and poultry products have a long been considered as a major source and reservoir of human infections, accounting for 50-70 % of all reported cases of Campylobacteriosis followed by ruminants (beef, dairy cattle, and their manure) [6, 10]. Although Campylobacter infections in humans are sporadic and often self-limiting, antimicrobial therapy is indicated in severe and prolonged cases [11] . The campylobacteriosis treatment is mainly based on fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin) due to their broad-spectrum activity, and effectiveness against both Gram-negative and Gram positive bacteria [6, 12] . In food-producing animals, fluoroquinolones are frequently used to treat infections and in same case, have been indiscriminately employed as feed additive and growth promoters [13, 14]. The rise in resistance to fluoroquinolones has necessitated the introduction of a new class of antibiotics. Macrolides are currently first-line treatment for campylobacteriosis [15] , with erythromycin being the most widely used agent, demonstrating satisfactory therapeutic results. On the other hand, erythromycin resistance levels have been increasing in recent years [16, 17], requiring urgent active surveillance [13] . In such situations, alternative antibiotics such as tetracycline and gentamicin, or amphenicols such as chloramphenicol may be also used [18]. The widespread exposure of Campylobacter to antibiotics, used in both human and Veterinary Medicine, has created selective pressure that has driven the development and rising prevalence of antibiotic resistant associated with outbreaks throughout the world [9, 19]. This is largely due to the signiﬁcant prevalence of these bacteria in the environment and their ability to colonise the gastrointestinal tracts of various animals [20]. Livestock operations particularly large-scale, consistent, and heavily packed may amplify threat of zoonotic diseases in surroundings environments [21]. The resistance cannot be attributed solely to antibiotic use, as interspecies transmission and subsequent clonal expansion also contribute to the spread The study was conducted during 2022 to 2024. A total of 138 Campylobacter isolates were collected from meat samples of broiler chickens, cattle and sheep during the slaughtering process at slaughterhouses located in three eastern Algerian provinces (Batna, Bordj Bou Arreridj and Setif) including 96 of Campylobacter jejuni and 42 of Campylobacter coli (TABLE I). Thus, 83 isolates (65 C. jejuni and 18 C. coli) were collected from broiler chickens, with 40 from Batna province, 28 from Borj Bou Arreridj and 15 from Setif. Additionally, 29 meat samples from cattle (15 C. jejuni and 14 C. coli) and 25 from sheep (15 C. jejuni and 10 C. coli) were collected, primarily from Batna and other eastern provinces. The isolation and identification of Campylobacter spp. isolates were carried out according to the ISO 10272-2: 2023 guidelines [23], allowing the identiﬁcation of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates which were subsequently subjected for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design and Campylobacter isolates of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter [19]. However, resistance can be developed through spontaneous mutations and the acquisition of resistance determinants via natural transformation, transduction, or conjugation [22], according to their different mechanisms of evasion against each antibiotic. Given these circumstances, this study aimed to explore the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates among broiler chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus), cattle (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries) in Algeria. Additionally, it sought to conduct a comparative analysis of the monitoring results according to isolates animal origins in order to assess the impact of animal origins on resistant patterns highlighting potential reservoirs of resistant isolates. Notably, there is limited comparative data on the antibiotic resistance proﬁles of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolated from broiler chickens compared to those from other animal species, particularly in developing countries. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Campylobacter jejuni (n = 96) and Campylobacter coli (n = 42) isolates was performed using the disk diffusion method in accordance with the guidelines of CASFM clinical breakpoints [19]. Bacterial suspensions were Antimicrobial susceptibility tests of C. jejuni and C. coli

3 of 9 Revista Cientíﬁca, FCV-LUZ / Vol. XXXVI RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Statistical analysis of the data was performed using SPSS Software (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), version 25.0 (IBM). Categorical variables (resistant vs. susceptible) were summarized as counts and percentages. Comparisons between three groups of animal origin (broiler chicken, cattle, and sheep) were assessed to compare the antimicrobial resistance patterns according to Campylobacter species (C. jejuni vs. C. coli) using one- way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Post-hoc tests (unspecified, probably Tukey HSD) were used to identify differentiated pairs. A P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically signiﬁcant. The resistance rates obtained from Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates from meat samples derived from broilers chickens, cattle and sheep, and tested against 14 antibiotics revealed a varied results depending on both Campylobacter species and animal origin (FIG. 1). In broiler chickens isolates, C. coli marked the higher resistance levels than C. jejuni to the most of antibiotics, with 100 % of resistance rate to macrolides (Streptomycin, Erythromycin), Quinolones (Nalidixic acid), Fluoroquinolone (Ciprofloxacin) and Tetracycline. C. coli showed high resistance rates of 72 to 77 % to beta-lactams (Ampicillin, Amoxicillin- Clavulanic acid), and to cephalosporin of different generation (Cephalothin and Cefotaxime). Conversely, high susceptibility was notably observed for Kanamycin, Trimethoprim, and Chloramphenicol (100 %), with moderate rate to Gentamicin (50 %). C. jejuni displayed a high resistance rate representing 92 % to Quinolone (Nalidixic acid), Fluoroquinolone (Ciprofloxacin), and metronidazole antibiotic, 75 % to macrolide (Erythromycin) and around 69 % of Beta-lactams (Ampicillin, Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid). Resistance rates to Cefotaxime, Streptomycin, Gentamicin and Tetracycline were 48, 46 and 43 % respectively. C. jejuni exhibited high susceptibility rate to Cefotaxime, Kanamycin, Trimethoprim, and Chloramphenicol (86 - 88 %), with lower rates to Cephalothin, Streptomycin, and Tetracycline (52 - 57 %). In the other animal origin isolates, the total resistance (100 %) was just revealed to Quinolone (Nalidixic acid) in C. coli isolated from cattle, with high rates to Cephalosporin (Cefotaxime) 79 Inhibition zones were measured, and isolates were classiﬁed as susceptible or resistant based on CASFM interpretive criteria. This allowed a comparative analysis of resistance patterns by species and animal origin. Statistical analysis Antimicrobial resistance rates of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates prepared in sterile saline and adjusted to a turbidity equivalent to a 0.5 McFarland standard. The suspensions were then inoculated onto Mueller–Hinton agar (Oxoid Ltd., France) supplemented with 5 % lysed horse blood. Control strains (C. jejuni ATCC 33560 and C. coli ATCC 33559) were also used. The plates were incubated under microaerophilic conditions at 41.5 °C for 24–48 h. A total of 14 antimicrobial agents were tested, divided into Comité de l'Antibiogramme de la Société Française de Microbiologie (CASFM)-recommended antibiotics (TABLE II) and additional antibiotics relevant for Human Medicine, Veterinary practice, or species differentiation (TABLE III).

4 of 9 Antimicrobial resistance proﬁles of campylobacter/MESSAOUDENE et al. Antimicrobial resistance is one of the most critical and urgent global health challenges, with signiﬁcant implications for human healthcare systems as well as the veterinary and agriculture ﬁelds [24, 25]. Its rapid emergence and dissemination outpace development of newer antimicrobial agents [11, 26], largely attributable to their widespread use particularly in livestock production destined for human consumption [27, 28]. In Algeria, as in many other countries, antibiotics are routinely administered to food-producing animals (broiler chickens production as well as in cattle and sheep) mainly for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes, and in some farming system as growth promoters [29, 30]. National studies have reported many data on AMR profile variations and comparative analysis for Salmonella and Escherichia coli isolates from different animal origin. However, no studies have compared AMR proﬁles in Campylobacter isolates across animal sources, existing reports describe resistance patterns without animal interspecies comparisons. % and 57 % to Macrolide (Erythromycin). C. coli isolated from sheep species marked high rates of 70 % to both Cefotaxime and Metronidazole, with 50 % to Tetracycline. On the other hand, high susceptibility was marked to the most of antibiotics, especially Ampicillin, Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid, Cefotaxime, Kanamycin, Trimethoprim, and Chloramphenicol (80 – 100 %) in a both of cattle and sheep origins. For C. jejuni in cattle, resistance was noted to Metronidazole by 93 %, Ampicillin (67 %), and Streptomycin (60 %) with 47 % to both Erythromycin and Nalidixic acid. In contrast, full susceptibility was observed to Ciprofloxacin and Chloramphenicol. In sheep, C. jejuni isolates demonstrated high resistance rates of 63 % to Nalidixic Acid, 50 % to Chloramphenicol, and 44 % to Gentamicin. However, several antibiotics demonstrated significant efficacy, as reflected by their corresponding susceptibility rates such as Ciprofloxacin and Metronidazole (94 %), Tetracycline (81 %), and 75 % to most other tested antibiotics. The antimicrobial resistance rates presented in FIG. 1 also highlight resistance across multiple antibiotic classes among several Campylobacter isolates, indicating the presence of multidrug resistant strains especially in broiler chickens’ isolates. FIGURE 1. Resistance rates of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates to tested antibiotics in meat samples from different animal origins (broiler chickens, cattle and sheep). In this context, the present study explored the antimicrobial resistant rate of Campylobacter isolates recovered from broiler chickens, cattle and sheep against 14 antibiotics. A comparative analysis was conducted to assess significant differences in resistance patterns according to the animal source of food products. Broiler chicken isolates exhibited the highest antimicrobial resistance rates among other animal sources, with a higher rate of C. coli than C. jejuni. Broiler chickens Isolates generally have the highest resistance rates, highlighting the major role of intensive poultry farming in the selection and dissemination of resistant strains. Overall, C. coli has consistently demonstrated a higher resistance than C. jejuni, particularly in avian isolates. Alarmingly high resistance to quinolones, Fluoroquinolones, Macrolides, Tetracycline (100 %) and Beta-lactams (72 % -77 %) was observed in chickens C. coli isolates. Chicken C. jejuni showed 92 % resistance to Quinolones, Fluoroquinolones, and Metronidazole, 75 % to Macrolides, and 69 % to Beta-lactams. These rates are of concern, given that these classes of antibiotics are widely used in veterinary and human medicine. Such resistances are generally associated with mutations targeting genes involved in the antibiotics mechanisms, as well as the presence of transmissible resistance genes, which are favoured by strong selection pressure [24]. High resistance to Fluoroquinolone, particularly to Nalidixic acid and Ciprofloxacin, suggests the intensive or inappropriate use of these antibiotics in poultry farming. Similarly, resistance to Erythromycin, the cornerstone antibiotic of human Campylobacteriosis treatment, poses a significant health risk. The ﬁnding agree with many study in Tunisia and also in Morocco which showed complete resistance of C. coli to Macrolide, Quinolone [25, 26], Kenya [11] and developing countries like China, united states [27, 28, 29] . However, some studies in Egypt, and Morocco showed that C. jejuni high resistant than C. coli in broiler isolates to the most antibiotic agents [30, 31]. Elevated resistance rates were also evident in isolates from cattle and sheep. Bovine C. coli isolates showed complete resistance to Quinolone, alongside high resistance to Cephalosporins (79 %) and Macrolides (59 %). Ovine C .coli also marked high rate to both Beta-lactams and Nitroimidazoles (70 %), with moderate resistance to Tetracycline. C. jejuni isolated from cattle demonstrated a substantial resistant to Nitroimidazoles (93 %), Beta-lactams (67 %) and Aminoglycosides (60 %), while notable resistance to Macrolides and Quinolones, consistently to results reported in recent study in Korea [32]. Ovine C. jejuni, displayed 63 % resistance to Quinolones, 50 % to Chloramphenicol, and moderate Aminoglycoside resistance. These data provide substantial evidence that intensively farmed animals play a role in sustaining resistant Campylobacter isolates, aligning with Spanish and united states studies showing that ruminants (cattle and sheep) serve as key reservoir [33, 34]. This reflect irregular and inappropriate antibiotics use in the ﬁeld, particularly prohibited Chloramphenicol administration [35, 36]. Regarding other animal origin isolates (cattle and sheep) high rates were also obtained, C. coli isolated from cattle showed a total resistance to Quinolone with increasing level

5 of 9 Revista Cientíﬁca, FCV-LUZ / Vol. XXXVI to Cephalosporin and Macrolide similarly (79 % and 59 % respectively), ovine C. coli also marked high rate to both Beta- lactams and Nitroimidazoles (70 %). The statistical analysis of antimicrobial response profiles revealed significant association and differences among Campylobacter isolates according to animal origin for the majority of tested antibiotics (ANOVA, P < 0.05). This highlights considerable heterogeneity in resistance profiles depending on the origin of the isolates. In the Beta-lactams and Cephalosporin antibiotic classes, significant differences were observed in isolates from broiler chickens compared to those from cattle and sheep. High resistance rates were observed for Ampicillin (P = 0.023), Amoxicillin- Clavulanic acid (P = 0.004), and Cefotaxime (P < 0.001). Conversely, the bovine and ovine isolates exhibited significantly higher susceptibility rates (Ampicillin, P = 0.002; Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid, P < 0.001; Cephalothin, P = 0.045), reaching up to 80 %. Notably, cefotaxime showed a marked variation (P < 0.001), with a high susceptibility of 87.69 % in broiler chicken isolates, predominantly C. jejuni . These resistances were primarily associated with C. coli , indicating a link between the dominant species in broiler chickens and elevated resistance levels. Trimethoprim (antifolate class) and Kanamycin (aminoglycoside class) also exhibited significant differences (P = 0.012), with the highest resistance levels in broiler isolates. However, both antibiotics showed no significant variation (P = 0.156), displaying uniform susceptibility across all origins. Gentamicin displayed significant variation (P = 0.023), with full susceptibility in ovine C. coli and reduced rates in broiler chickens. These findings reinforce the association and concordance between poultry origin and the increased expression of resistance to these antibiotics (TABLE IV). Furthermore, Macrolides (Streptomycin and Erythromycin), Fluoroquinolone (Ciprofloxacin) and Tetracycline showed signiﬁcant differences characterized by extremely high resistance levels in broiler chickens’ isolates, reaching 100 %, mainly linked with C. coli, reinforcing the association between avian origin, isolated species and the intensity of the observed resistance phenotype (TABLE V). For Quinolones, Nalidixic acid, although significant differences (P = 0.002) were observed between animal origins, with the highest resistance rates recorded in both bovine and broiler chickens’ isolates. This indicates a shared high resistance across these origins, predominantly associated with C. coli. Accordingly, susceptibility rates demonstrated significant variations (P < 0.001) to these antibiotic families, with bovine isolates showing complete susceptibility to Macrolides, Quinolones, and Fluoroquinolones (Nalidixic acid and Ciprofloxacin). C. jejuni isolates from ovine (80 %) and broiler chickens (93.75 %) demonstrated high susceptibility to these antibiotics . Tetracycline susceptibility differed significantly (P = 0.001), with complete sensitivity in bovine and ovine C. coli strains, while broiler chicken isolates showed reduced rates. Chloramphenicol (P < 0.001) displayed a distinct resistance profile, with the highest resistance observed in sheep isolates, predominantly associated with C. jejuni , and maximal susceptibility in C. coli . This pattern underscores a specific association between sheep origin, bacterial species and resistance phenotype. However, metronidazole (P < 0.001) showed signiﬁcant differences between the three animal origins, with maximum resistance observed in broiler chickens’ isolates, with peak resistance in broiler chicken isolates predominantly C. jejuni thereby underscoring a pronounced association between poultry origin and resistant profiles. Notably, susceptibility differed significantly (P < 0.001), particularly in ovine C. jejuni isolates, where it reached 93.75 % (TABLE VI).

6 of 9 Antimicrobial resistance proﬁles of campylobacter/MESSAOUDENE et al. Conversely, no statistically significant variations were observed in resistance levels to Cephalothin (P = 0.156) and Gentamycin (P = 0.089) across host groups, indicating no clear association between animal origin and resistance to these speciﬁc antibiotics. A detailed analysis of the resistance profiles according to isolated species reveals that broiler chickens’ isolates demonstrated the highest resistance rates to most antibiotics, frequently associated with C. coli or C. jejuni. In contrast, bovine and ovine isolates displayed more heterogeneous resistance profiles, with resistance reaching 100 % for certain antibiotics contingent on species/origin combination (C. coli predominant in cattle; both C. coli and C. jejuni in sheep). The analysis of variance was conducted to confirm that Campylobacter isolates broiler chickens represented higher resistance proﬁles to the most of antibiotic classes compared to bovine and ovine isolates with statistically signiﬁcant differences (P < 0.05). These significant differences were particularly for Macrolides, Fluoroquinolone, Tetracycline and Nitroimidazoles in broiler chickens isolates showed the highest resistance. However, bovine and ovine isolates exhibited elevated rate especially for Quinolones and their resistance were less extensive than observed in broiler chickens, these significant differences was also reported in other studies [37, 38] supporting the predominant role of broiler chickens as major reservoirs of antimicrobial resistant Campylobacter within the food production chain and underscore a discernible concordance between the poultry origin of the isolates and a stronger selection pressure driving the expression of resistance mechanisms speciﬁc to these classes [39]. The present study also revealed high susceptibility rates marked in bovine and ovine isolates to the majority of antibiotics classes especially in C. jejuni following by C. coli (TABLE VII). The total rates were observed to Ciprofloxacin and Chloramphenicol in bovine C. jejuni , conversely reporting in other studies where C. jejuni in cattle represented a low susceptibility to Fluoroquinolone [40] and similar susceptibility reported in study of Tang, et al. [34].

7 of 9 Revista Cientíﬁca, FCV-LUZ / Vol. XXXVI CONCLUSION This investigation demonstrates the highest resistance rates in Campylobacter isolates from broiler chickens especially in Campylobacter coli than Campylobacter jejuni including multidrug resistance observed in most of isolates. Comparative analysis of isolates from broiler chickens, cattle and sheep affirms that broiler chickens remain the primary reservoir of resistant Campylobacter, highlighting in the other side an emerging trend of antibiotic resistance trend among isolates from other livestock (cattle and sheep). These findings underscore the critical need of continuous monitoring and implementation of prudent measures regarding antibiotic use and biosecurity in order to limit the spread of antibiotic resistance. Such actions are essential to protect animal health, the broader community, and the food supply under the one health approach, involving cooperation among various ﬁelds to optimize health outcomes for humans, animals, and the environment. It acknowledges the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental domains and recognizes their inherent interconnectedness. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The authors thank the staff of laboratory and slaughterhouses, the Institute of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences for their technical support, and the selected regional abattoirs for authorizing sample collection. Conﬂicts of interest ACKNOWLEDGMENTS BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES Lopez-Chavarrias V, Ugarte-Ruiz M, Barcena C, Olarra A, Garcia M, Saez JL, de Frutos C, Serrano T, Perez I, Moreno MA, Dominguez L, Alvarez J. 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